This section covers the different prehistoric and ancient periods of Rajasthan, from the Paleolithic Age to the pre-medieval period.

Periods of Rajasthan's Ancient History

• Paleolithic Age (Pashan Kal)
• Chalcolithic Age (Tamra Pashan Kal)
• Bronze Age (Kansya Kal)
• Iron Age (Lauh Kal)
• Mahajanapada Period
• Mauryan Period
• Post-Mauryan Period
• Gupta Period
• Post-Gupta Period

Paleolithic Age (Pashan Kal)

• In 1870 CE, C.A. Hackett found hand axes (axes) in Jaipur and Indragarh (Bundi).
• Settalcar discovered similar tools in Jhalawar, and A. Allchin found them in Jalore.

Key Paleolithic Sites:

1. Bagor:
   • Located on the banks of the Kothari River in Bhilwara.
   • Known as the 'Cradle of Ancient Civilizations of Rajasthan.'
   • Excavated by: Virendranath Mishra (V.N. Mishra)
   • Excavated site: Mahasatiyan
   • Evidence:
     • Microlithic tools (small stone tools)
     • Evidence of animal husbandry
     • Evidence of agriculture
     • Copper needle with a hole
     • Food items and utensils
     • Iron tools
2. Tilwara:
   • Located on the banks of the Luni River in Balotra.
   • Excavated by: Virendranath Mishra (V.N. Mishra)
   • Evidence:
     • Microlithic tools
     • Animal husbandry
     • Fire pits
3. Panchpadra: Balotra
4. Budha Pushkar: Ajmer
5. Jayal: Nagaur
6. Didwana
7. Sojat: Pali
8. Dhaneri: Pali

• Virendra Nath Mishra's book: "Bagor & Tilwara - Late Mesolithic Cultures of North-West India"

Chalcolithic Age (Tamra Pashan Kal)

• Most centers of this period are located on the banks of the Banas River, hence it's called the 'Banas Civilization'.
• Ahar was the main center, so it's also called the 'Ahar Civilization'.
• Discovered by: Ratna Chandra Agarwal.

Key Chalcolithic Sites:

1. Ahar:
   • Located in Udaipur district on the banks of the Ahar (Bedach) River.
   • Ancient Names: Aghatpur / Atpur
   • Local Name: Dhoolkot
   • Excavated by: Akshay Kirti Vyas, R.C. Agarwal, Hasmukh Dhiraj Sankalia, Virendranath Mishra.
   • Evidence:
     • Copper furnaces (making it known as 'Tamravati Nagari' - City of Copper)
     • Black/Red pottery (Giri/Koth)
     • Chulhas (Stoves) indicating joint families and community meals.
     • Double-mouthed chulha
     • Lapis lazuli from Afghanistan
     • Grinding stone
     • Handle-less water vessel (indicating Iranian civilization contact)
     • Coin with an image of Apollo (indicating Greek civilization contact)
     • Dyeing and printing industry
     • Weights (Ahar was a trading center)
     • Geru, Palat, Jawar (mineral deposits)
     • Bull figurine (known as 'Banas Bull')
     • Stone foundation
     • Use of unbaked bricks
     • Use of quartz for sand reinforcement
     • Jewelry with ashes (suggesting belief in rebirth)
2. Gilund:
   • Located in Rajsamand.
   • Excavated by: B.B. Lal, B.R. Sindhi, Gregory Possehl.
   • Evidence:
     • Baked bricks
     • Stone balls
     • Clay toys
     • Ivory bangles
     • Five types of pottery
   • Excavation of Modiya Nagari (Magri- hill)
3. Balathal:
   • Located in Udaipur.
   • Excavated by: Virendra Nath Mishra.
   • Evidence:
     • Iron smelting furnaces
     • Eleven-roomed house
     • Water well
     • Handmade cloth
     • Connections with the Indus Valley Civilization.
4. Osian:
   • Located in Bhilwara.
   • Excavated by: B.R. Meena, Alok Tripathi.
   • Evidence: Cow and bull figurines.
5. Malahatpura: Udaipur.
6. Rozdi: Gujarat.

Bronze Age (Kansya Yug)

• Most early centers of this period were found along the Indus River, hence it is called the 'Indus Valley Civilization.'
• The main center was also located along the Indus and Saraswati rivers, so it's also called the 'Indus-Saraswati Civilization.'
• The first center of this civilization was Harappa, hence it's also known as the 'Harappan Civilization.'

Key Bronze Age Sites:

1. Kalibanga:
   • Located on the banks of the Ghaggar River in Hanumangarh district.
   • Meaning of Kalibanga: Black Bangles.
   • Oral Stein surveyed the Ghaggar River.
   • First information about Kalibanga was given by L.P. Tessitori (Italian).
   • Discovered in 1953 CE by: Amalanand Ghosh.
   • Excavated by: B.B. Lal (Brajwasi), B.K. Thapar, M.D. Khare (Excavation work done from 1961-69)
   • According to Dashrath Sharma, Kalibanga was the third capital of the Harappan Civilization.
   • Kotdiji (Sindh province, Pakistan) is similar to Kalibanga.
   • Five levels of excavation:
     • Pre-Harappan (1 & 2)
     • Developed Harappan (3, 4, & 5)
   • Kalibanga city was divided into two parts:
     • Citadel: Administrative buildings
     • Lower town: Houses for the general public
   • Evidence:
     • Both parts were surrounded by separate walls
     • Mirror flask
     • Ploughed field (southeast direction)
     • Cultivation of two crops together
     • Seven fire pits
     • Figure of a rising bull
     • Paired burials
     • Cylindrical seal (providing information about Mesopotamian civilization)
     • Unbaked bricks (Kalibanga was a poor settlement)
     • Ornamented bricks
     • Absence of a proper drainage system
     • Wooden drains
     • Copper bangles
     • Skull with six holes (suggesting brain disease or surgery)
     • Evidence of an earthquake (cracks in houses)
     • Museum established here in 1985 CE.
2. Sothi:
   • The civilization around Bikaner is known as the Sothi Civilization.
   • Amalananda Ghosh called it the 'Origin place of the Kalibanga Civilization.'
   • Also called 'Kalibanga I.'
   • Centers: Savaniyan and Pungal in Bikaner.

Iron Age (Lauh Yug)

• Information about this era is found in the Vedas, hence it is known as the 'Vedic Civilization'.
• Centers: Anupgarh, Tarkhanwala Dera, Chak-64 Sri Ganganagar.

Mahajanapada Period

1. Matsya Mahajanapada:
   • Area: Jaipur, Alwar, Bharatpur.
   • Information is obtained from the Rigveda.
   • Capital: Viratnagar (Jaipur). Information also found in the Mahabharata.
   • According to Gopinath Sharma, the Matsya Janapada became powerful after the Mahabharata war.
   • The Chedi (M.P.) Mahajanapada defeated the Matsya Mahajanapada.
   • Later, the Matsya Mahajanapada merged into the Magadha (Bihar) Mahajanapada.
2. Shursen Mahajanapada:
   • Area: Bharatpur and Alwar.
   • Capital: Mathura.
3. Kuru Mahajanapada:
   • Area: Northern part of Alwar.
   • Capital: Indraprastha.
4. Shivi Janapada:
   • Area: Udaipur and Chittorgarh.
   • Capital: Madhyamika/Nagari (Chittorgarh).
   • Sources of Information: Ashtadhyayi (Panini) - Sanskrit language, Mahabhashya (Patanjali), Mahabharata (Vyasa), and the Badli Inscription.
   • Madhyamika was a center for Buddhism, Jainism, and Vaishnavism.
   • It was the first excavated site in Rajasthan.
   • Excavated by: D.R. Bhandarkar, K.B. Saunder Rajan.
   • Discovered by: Carlleyle
   • Evidence: Vaishnav temple, Buddhist-era stupa temple, ring wells, Ahar and Shivi Janapada coins.
   • Badli Inscription: (443 BC)
     • Found in 1912 by Gauri Shankar Hirachand Ojha at Miroh Mata Temple (Badli, Ajmer).
     • Oldest inscription in Rajasthan.
     • Written in Veer Nirvan Samvat 84.
     • According to this inscription, Madhyamika was a Jain center.
5. Malav Janapada:
   • Area: Tonk and Jaipur.
   • Capital: Nagar (Tonk).
   • Excavated by: Kumdev.
   • Evidence: Idol of Mahishasura Mardini.
   • The civilization of this Janapada is known as 'Kheda Civilization.'
   • It has the highest number of coins discovered.
   • The coins were found at Nagar and Rairh (Tonk).
   • Rairh is known as 'Tata Nagar of Ancient India.'
   • Excavated by: Kedarnath Puri.
6. Yaudheya Janapada:
   • Area: Sri Ganganagar and Hanumangarh.
   • Women used to resist the power of the Kushans.
   • Information found in the Girnar or Junagadh (Gujarat) inscription of the Shak king Rudradaman (Gujarat).
   • According to this inscription, Yaudheyas held the title of 'Veer'.
7. Shalv Janapada: Area: Alwar.
   • It had a border dispute with the Matsya Mahajanapada.
8. Arjunayan Janapada: Area: Sikar (Neem ka Thana), Alwar, Bharatpur.
9. Rajya Janapada: Area: Bharatpur.

Mauryan Period

• Center: Bairath (Jaipur).
• Two Ashokan inscriptions have been found here.
  • A) Bhabru Inscription: (1837 CE)
    • Discovered by Captain Burt on Bijak Hill.
    • Also called 'Bhabru Inscription.'
    • Ashoka is called "King of Magadha."
    • Ashoka expresses faith in Buddha, Sangha, and Dhamma.
    • This inscription provides information about 7 Buddhist books.
  • B) Inscription from Bhim Pahari: (1871 CE)
    • Discovered by Carlleyle.
    • Carlleyle is called the 'Father of Archaeology of Rajasthan.'
• Chinese traveler Huen Tsang visited Bairath. He called Bairath 'Pilo Yo Tolo,' and noted the prominence of Buddhism and the buffaloes of Bairath.
• According to Huen Tsang, there were eight Buddhist monasteries in Bairath, which were destroyed by the Huna king Mihirkula.
• Rock paintings have been found at Bairath. The script of Bairath is called the Shankh script.
• During the reign of Jaipur Maharaja Ram Singh II, Bairath was excavated, and a gold box was found, which may have contained the relics of Lord Buddha.
• Development of the Mauryan period:
  • 1936 CE - Dayaram Sahni
  • 1961-62 CE - Neel Ratan Banerjee
  • Excavated by: British government, Kailash Nath Dikshit, Government of India.
• According to the book 'Kumar Pal Prabandh,' the fort of Chittorgarh was built by Chitrangad Maurya. Hence, it is also called the 'Chitrakut Fort.'
• Man Sarovar Inscription: 713 CE (Chittorgarh).
  • This inscription was found by Colonel James Tod.
  • Provides information about four Mauryan kings: Maheshwar, Bhib, Bhoj, and Maan.
• Kanaswa Shiv Temple Inscription: 738 CE (Kota)
  • Provides information about the Mauryan king Dhaval.
  • This is the last inscription providing information about the Mauryas in Rajasthan.

Post-Mauryan Period

• The Indo-Greek king Menander attacked Madhyamika. This information is obtained from Patanjali's Mahabhashya.
• 28 Indo-Greek and 16 gold coins of Menander have been found at Bairath.
  • i) Noh (Bharatpur)
  • Excavated by: Ratna Chandra Agarwal.
  • Evidence:
    • Iron agricultural tools.
    • Yaksh idol (Jakh Baba) - from the Shunga period.
    • Coins of the Kushan kings Huvishka and Vasudeva.
    • Ring wells.
  • ii) Rangmahal (Hanumangarh)
    • Excavated by: Dr. Hannaide (Sweden).
    • Evidence:
      • Red pottery with black lines.
      • Rice.
      • A teacher-student idol from the Kushan period.
      • Clay toy cart.

Gupta Period

1. Bayana (Bharatpur):
   • Samudragupta built a victory pillar here. It was the first victory pillar in Rajasthan.
   • Vishnuvardhan of the Varik dynasty built the Manlat (pillar) here.
   • Heaps of Gupta coins have been found at Nagla Thail (Bharatpur), Nauroli (Jaipur), Budha (Ajmer), Rairh, and Sotha (Tonk).
   • Queen Vigrahlekha of Pratihara king Lakshman Sen built the 'Usha Temple' here.
   • Bayana was famous for indigo cultivation in the medieval period.
2. Badtha Inscription (Baran): (238 CE)
   • This inscription provides information about the general Bal of the Maukhari dynasty.
   • Stone pillars have been found here, and three of them have inscriptions.
3. Badoli (Chittorgarh):
   • The Huna king Mihirkula built a Shiva temple here.
4. Barchoma (Kota):
   • A Gupta-era Shiva temple was built here.

Post-Gupta/Rajput Period/Tripartite Struggle/Early Medieval Period:

1. Bhinmal (Jalor):
   • It was the capital of the Chavda Rajputs.
   • The Chavda kings patronized the poets Magh and Brahmagupta. Both were related to Bhinmal.
   • Poet Magh's book: Shishupal Vadh"Upama Kalidasya, Bharavi Artha Gauravam Pada Lalitya Dandina: Magheshyeti Trayoguna"
   • Brahmagupta is called the Newton of India.
     • Brahmagupta's books: Brahmasphut Siddhanta, Khandakhadyaka.
   • Huen Tsang visited Bhinmal during the reign of the Chavda kings and called Bhinmal 'Pi-Li-Lo.'
   • Information about the Chavda kings is obtained from the Basantgarh (Sirohi) inscription.
   • Bhinmal was a center of learning.
   • Later, the Pratiharas captured Bhinmal.
   • Excavated by: Ratna Chandra Agarwal.
   • Evidence: Shak coins, Roman Sakhurra, Greek double-mouth carafe.
2. Basantgarh Inscription (Sirohi): (625 CE)
   • Found at the Khimel Mata Temple.
   • Provides information about the Chavda king Varmalat.
   • Provides information about the administrative/feudal system.
   • 'Rebil' was the feudal lord of Abu at that time.
   • The term 'Rajasthan' was first used in this inscription.

Other Archaeological Sites:

1. Ganeshwar: (Neem Ka Thana)

   • Located on the banks of the Katli River.
   • Excavated by: R.C. Agarwal.
   • Known as the 'Mother of Copper Age Civilizations.'
   • Evidence:
     • Copper - copper was sent from here to Harappa and Mohenjo-daro.
     • Stone dam - to protect against floods.
     • Black and blue pottery.
     • Use of stones in building houses.

2. Rairh: (Tonk)

   • Excavated by: Kedarnath Puri.
   • Evidence:
     • Iron (known as Tata Nagar of ancient India)
     • 3000 coins - Malav, Mitra, Apollodotus, Rando-Sessenian
     • Idol of a woman wearing a turban
     • Idol of Matadevi
     • Rakaver wells

3. Sunari: (Neem Ka Thana)

   • Located on the banks of the Katli River.
   • It was a Vedic-era settlement.
   • Evidence:
     • Iron furnaces (oldest in India)
     • Rice
     • Horse-drawn chariots
     • Conch shell bangles

4. Jodhpur:

   • Known as the "Dharatal Ghat Civilization."
   • Located on the banks of the Sabi River in Jaipur district.
   • Evidence: Iron
   • Excavated by: R.C. Agarwal

5. Baror:

   • Located in Sri Ganganagar on the banks of the ancient Saraswati River.
   • Evidence:
     • Seals shaped like buttons
     • 8000 lapis lazuli beads
     • Remains of pre-Harappan and developed Harappan cultures

6. Isawal: (Udaipur)

   • Known as an industrial city in ancient times.
   • Evidence: Iron

7. Kurada: (Nagaur)

   • Evidence: Farming tools
   • Referred to as the "City of Tools"
   • Aahad coins

8. Naliasar: (Jaipur, near Sambhar)

   • Evidence: Kushan coins (105)

9. Elana: (Jalore)

10. Kiradot

11. Chothwari: (Jaipur)

12. Nandlalpura

13. Malah: (Bharatpur)

14. Elana: (Jalore)

15. Pind Padaliya: (Chittorgarh)

16. Sadol: (Udaipur)

---

Continued: Historians and Sources

George Thomas

• A resident of Ireland.
• A mercenary commander for the Marathas. Attacked Udaipur, Jaipur, and Bikaner.
• First used the term 'Rajputana' for Rajasthan (1800 CE).
• William Franklin wrote the book "Military Memoirs of Mr. George Thomas."
• Also known as "Jahazi Firangi" (Foreign Sailor).

Colonel James Tod

• A resident of Scotland.

• Appointed as the Political Agent of the western Rajput states in 1818 CE.

• Worked in Udaipur, Jaisalmer, Jodhpur, Kota, and Bundi.

• His Guru was Yati Gyan Chandra.

• He used the term 'Rajasthan' in his book (1829 CE).

• Books:

  1. "Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan" (or "The Central and Western Rajput States of India")
  2. "Travels in Western India"

• He is known as the 'Father of Rajasthan History' and 'Ghodewale Baba' (The Man with the Horse).

Note

• The Archaeological Survey of India was established in 1861 CE by Alexander Cunningham.
• The Rajasthan Archaeological Survey was first conducted by A.C.I. Carlleyle in 1871 CE.

---

Medieval History of Rajasthan

Major Ruling Dynasties:

• Chauhan
• Parmar
• Pratihar
• Guhil/Sisodia
• Rathore
• Kachhwaha

Aspects of focus: Political, Administrative, Cultural, Revenue (Economic)