American Revolution

Causes of the Revolution:

• Social Causes:

  • Class Tensions: Growing divide between colonial elites and British aristocracy fueled resentment of British rule.
  • Community Identity: Strong local ties fostered a sense of autonomy and resistance to distant rule.
  • Population Growth: Expanding colonies demanded more autonomy and economic opportunities.

• Economic Causes:

  • Taxation: "No taxation without representation" (e.g., Stamp Act, Tea Act) became a rallying cry against perceived British tyranny.
  • Mercantilism: British trade restrictions (Navigation Acts) limited colonial profits and stifled economic growth.
  • Debt Burden: Post-French and Indian War taxes angered colonists who felt they were unfairly burdened.

• Political Causes:

  • Self-Governance: Tradition of local rule (e.g., town meetings) clashed with British control and desire for more autonomy.
  • Salutary Neglect: End of lax oversight provoked resistance as colonists became accustomed to self-governance.
  • Centralized Power: British attempts to tighten authority (e.g., Intolerable Acts) fueled rebellion as colonists feared the erosion of their liberties.

• Ideological Causes:

  • Enlightenment: Locke’s natural rights, Montesquieu’s separation of powers provided a philosophical basis for revolution.
  • Republicanism: Desire for elected representation over monarchy reflected a commitment to self-government.
  • Social Contract: Right to overthrow tyrannical rule justified rebellion against a perceived oppressive government.
  • Liberty: British violations (e.g., quartering troops) spurred defiance and fueled a desire for freedom.
  • Pamphlets: Paine’s Common Sense popularized independence by arguing for the inherent right to self-government and exposing the absurdity of monarchy.
  • Religious Dissent: Protestant ideas of individual conscience resisted tyranny and promoted a spirit of independence.

Major Events Leading to the Revolution:

• French and Indian War (1754-1763) / Seven Years' War:

  • Significance: A pivotal turning point that shifted the relationship between Britain and its colonies.
  • Resulted in a significant increase in British national debt, leading to policies aimed at extracting revenue from the colonies.
  • The removal of the French threat from North America diminished the colonies' dependence on British military protection, increasing their confidence.
  • The war exposed tensions between British and colonial soldiers due to differing military objectives and perspectives.

• Proclamation of 1763:

  • Significance: Demonstrated British intent to control colonial expansion and angered colonists.
  • Prohibited colonial settlement west of the Appalachian Mountains, angering colonists who sought westward expansion.
  • Aimed to prevent further conflicts with Native American tribes, but was perceived by colonists as an infringement on their freedom and economic opportunities.

• Sugar Act (1764):

  • Significance: First major revenue-raising attempt; sparked colonial resistance to taxation.
  • Increased duties on sugar, coffee, wine, and other imports to the colonies, aiming to raise revenue for the British crown.
  • Expanded the powers of admiralty courts, which tried cases without juries, leading to colonial resentment.

• Currency Act (1764):

  • Significance: Hurt the colonial economy and fueled resentment of British control.
  • Prohibited the colonies from issuing their own paper currency, restricting their economic activity and contributing to financial hardship.

• Committees of Correspondence (1764):

  • Significance: Crucial for coordinating colonial resistance and shaping public opinion.
  • Established by Samuel Adams and others to facilitate communication and coordinate resistance efforts among the colonies.
  • Played a crucial role in disseminating information, shaping public opinion, and organizing protests against British policies.

• Quartering Act (1765):

  • Significance: Seen as an infringement of colonial autonomy and a financial burden.
  • Required colonists to provide housing and supplies for British soldiers stationed in America.
  • Seen as an infringement on colonial autonomy and a financial burden, further fueling resentment.

• Stamp Act (1765):

  • Significance: A direct tax that ignited widespread colonial protest and united the colonies.
  • Required colonists to purchase stamped paper for legal documents, newspapers, playing cards, and other items.
  • A direct tax levied on the colonies without their consent, igniting widespread protest and uniting colonists against British policy.
  • Led to the Stamp Act Congress and the rise of organized resistance groups like the Sons of Liberty.

• Stamp Act Congress (1765):

  • Significance: A major step toward colonial unity and a challenge to British authority.
  • Delegates from nine colonies met in New York City to draft a declaration of rights and grievances, asserting that the colonies should not be taxed without representation.
  • Marked a significant step towards colonial unity and demonstrated a willingness to challenge British authority.

• Sons and Daughters of Liberty (1765):

  • Significance: Organized popular resistance and pressured British officials.
  • Organized resistance groups that used intimidation, boycotts, and violence to protest British policies and enforce non-importation agreements.
  • Played a crucial role in mobilizing public opinion and pressuring British officials to repeal unpopular acts.

• Townshend Acts (1767):

  • Significance: Led to renewed boycotts and increased tensions with Britain.
  • Imposed new taxes on imported goods such as glass, lead, paint, paper, and tea.
  • Designed to raise revenue and assert British authority over the colonies.
  • Led to renewed boycotts, protests, and increased smuggling.
  • Increased British military presence in Boston, further escalating tensions.

• Boston Massacre (1770):

  • Significance: Propaganda played a key role in turning public opinion against the British.
  • A clash between British soldiers and a group of colonists in Boston, resulting in the deaths of five colonists.
  • Propaganda used by Patriots to inflame anti-British sentiment and portray the British as tyrannical aggressors.

• Tea Act (1773):

  • Significance: Led directly to the Boston Tea Party and a major escalation of the conflict.
  • Granted the British East India Company a monopoly on the tea trade in America, allowing it to sell tea at a lower price than colonial merchants.
  • Seen by colonists as a ploy to force them to accept British taxation and undermine colonial merchants.
  • Led to the Boston Tea Party.

• Boston Tea Party (1773):

  • Significance: Infuriated the British government and triggered retaliatory measures that pushed the colonies closer to revolution.
  • A group of colonists disguised as Mohawk Indians boarded British ships in Boston Harbor and dumped chests of tea into the water.
  • A dramatic act of defiance that infuriated the British government and led to retaliatory measures (the Intolerable Acts).

• Intolerable Acts / Coercive Acts (1774):

  • Significance: United the colonies in opposition and led to the First Continental Congress.
  • A series of laws passed by the British Parliament in response to the Boston Tea Party.
  • Included the Boston Port Act (closing Boston Harbor), the Massachusetts Government Act (reducing colonial self-governance), the Quartering Act, and the Administration of Justice Act (allowing British officials to be tried in Britain).
  • Intended to punish Massachusetts and assert British control over the colonies.
  • Further united the colonies in opposition to British rule and led to the First Continental Congress.

• First Continental Congress (1774):

  • Significance: A major step toward coordinated colonial action and a formal assertion of rights.
  • Delegates from twelve colonies (all except Georgia) met in Philadelphia to discuss the crisis and coordinate a response to the Intolerable Acts.
  • Adopted a Declaration of Rights and Grievances, asserting colonial rights and calling for a boycott of British goods.
  • Agreed to convene a Second Continental Congress if their grievances were not addressed.

• Lexington and Concord (April 19, 1775):

  • Significance: Marked the beginning of the Revolutionary War.
  • British troops were sent to seize colonial arms and ammunition stored in Concord and arrest Patriot leaders Samuel Adams and John Hancock.
  • Armed clashes between British soldiers and colonial militia at Lexington and Concord marked the beginning of the Revolutionary War.

Key Events and Documents:

• Second Continental Congress (1775-1781):

  • Significance: Led the colonies through the war and ultimately declared independence.
  • Representatives from all thirteen colonies met in Philadelphia, initially seeking reconciliation with Great Britain.
  • Established the Continental Army and appointed George Washington as commander-in-chief.
  • Authorized the printing of money, established a postal service, and engaged in diplomacy with foreign powers.
  • Ultimately declared independence from Great Britain in 1776.

• Bunker Hill (June 17, 1775) / Breed's Hill:

  • Significance: Demonstrated colonial resolve and led King George III to declare the colonies in rebellion.
  • A major battle fought near Boston, resulting in a British victory but at a heavy cost.
  • Demonstrated the determination and fighting ability of the colonial militia.
  • Led King George III to declare the colonies in rebellion.

• "Common Sense" (1776):

  • Significance: A massively influential pamphlet that swayed public opinion toward independence.
  • A pamphlet written by Thomas Paine, advocating for complete independence from Great Britain.
  • Paine made the arguments that it made no sense for an island to rule a continent, and he lambasted the concept of monarchy, claiming it to be based on inherited power rather than merit.
  • Widely read and influential in swaying public opinion in favor of independence.

• Olive Branch Petition (July 1775):

  • Significance: A final attempt at reconciliation that failed, solidifying the path to independence.
  • Adopted by the Second Continental Congress as a last-ditch effort to reconcile with King George III.
  • Affirmed colonial loyalty to the king and requested the repeal of the Intolerable Acts.
  • Rejected by King George III, who declared the colonies to be in a state of rebellion.

• Declaration of Independence (July 4, 1776):

  • Significance: A foundational document of American democracy that articulated the principles of natural rights and self-government.
  • A formal declaration of independence from Great Britain, drafted primarily by Thomas Jefferson.
  • Asserted that "all men are created equal" and are endowed with unalienable rights including "life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness".
  • Listed a series of grievances against King George III, justifying the colonies' decision to separate from British rule.
  • Became a foundational document of American democracy and a source of inspiration for movements for freedom and equality around the world.

The Revolutionary War:

• British Advantages:
  • Larger population, more established economy, and greater access to resources.
  • A well-trained and experienced army and navy.
  • Support from Loyalists (colonists who remained loyal to the British crown).
  • Support from various Native American tribes who feared colonial expansion.
• American Advantages:
  • Fighting on their own territory, with knowledge of the terrain.
  • Strong leadership under George Washington.
  • Greater motivation and commitment to the cause of independence.
  • Eventual support from foreign powers, particularly France.
• Turning Points:
  • Early American Victories (Trenton, Princeton): Revived flagging spirits of colonists and demonstrated the potential for American success.
  • Victory at Saratoga (1777): Convinced France to enter the war as an ally of the United States, providing crucial military and financial support that turned the tide of the war.
• Lord Dunmore's Proclamation (1775): Offered freedom to enslaved people who joined the British army, disrupting the Southern economy and alarming slaveholders.
• Fighting in the South (1778-1781):
  • British forces initially achieved successes in the South, capturing key cities such as Savannah and Charleston.
  • However, Patriot guerrillas and partisan warfare disrupted British supply lines and wore down their forces.
• Major Battles:
  • Lexington and Concord (April 19, 1775): Marked the start of the American Revolution.
  • Bunker Hill (June 17, 1775): British won, but at a high cost, demonstrating colonial resolve.
  • Long Island (August 27-30, 1776): First large-scale battle of the war, resulting in an American retreat and near-disaster for Washington's army.
  • Trenton (December 26, 1776) and Princeton (January 3, 1777): Key American victories that boosted morale and kept the revolution alive.
  • Saratoga (September-October 1777): Decisive American victory that led to French recognition and alliance.
  • Yorktown (October 1781): A combined American and French force defeated the British under Cornwallis, effectively ending the war.

Consequences of the Revolution:

• Human Cost: Approximately 7,200 Americans died in battle, with thousands more dying from disease or in British prisons. Many civilians also suffered due to the disruption of war.

• Slavery and Inequality: *A quarter of the slaves in South Carolina and Georgia escaped, and Northern states outlawed slavery or adopted gradual emancipation plans, though the institution persisted in the South.

  • The Revolution created a tension between ideals of liberty and the reality of slavery that would eventually lead to the Civil War. This contradiction is a central theme in understanding the Revolution's legacy.
  • Voting rights were initially restricted to white male property owners, excluding women, Black Americans, Native Americans, and many poor whites which showed the hypocricy that many Americans held about freedom.

• Political and Social Change: States adopted written constitutions guaranteeing religious freedom and reforming laws. A new sense of American identity emerged, though tensions remained between different regions and social classes.

• Economic Disruption: The war disrupted trade and caused economic hardship, but also stimulated the development of domestic manufacturing.

• Treaty of Paris (1783):

  • Britain recognized the United States as an independent nation with borders extending from the Atlantic Ocean to the Mississippi River.
  • Granted the United States fishing rights off the coast of Newfoundland and Nova Scotia.
  • Required the United States to compensate Loyalists for property losses (though this was largely unenforced).

• Articles of Confederation (1781-1789):

  • The first attempt to establish a national government in the United States.
  • Created a weak central government with limited powers, leading to economic instability, interstate disputes, and the inability to effectively address national problems.
  • Weaknesses led to the Constitutional Convention of 1787.

• United States Constitution (1789):

  • A new national government was established to solve the problems of the Articles of Confederation.
  • Created a system of government with three branches (legislative, executive, and judicial) and a system of checks and balances to prevent any one branch from becoming too powerful.
  • Defined the rights of American citizens in the Bill of Rights, limiting government power and protecting individual liberties.
  • Established a framework for a more stable and effective national government, though debates over the interpretation and application of the Constitution continue to this day.

Influence of Enlightenment Ideas:

• Enlightenment Influence:

  • Natural Rights: Locke’s ideas of life, liberty, and property (revised as "pursuit of happiness" in the Declaration).
  • Social Contract: Government by consent; right to overthrow tyranny.
  • Popular Sovereignty: Power comes from the people, not monarchs.
  • Separation of Powers: Montesquieu’s model to prevent tyranny, shaping the U.S. Constitution.
  • Republicanism: Emphasis on elected representation and civic virtue over monarchy.

• British Traditions:

  • Magna Carta: Limited government, king under law.
  • English Bill of Rights: Guaranteed liberties like jury trials.
  • Common Law: Legal rights through precedent and local rule.

• Colonial Experience:

  • Self-Governance: Local assemblies (e.g., Virginia House of Burgesses) fostered autonomy.
  • Salutary Neglect: Britain’s lax rule bred expectations of independence.

• Economic Grievances:

  • No Taxation Without Representation: Taxes without parliamentary voice were illegitimate.
  • Mercantilism: Trade restrictions seen as oppressive.

• Key Thinkers:

  • Thomas Paine: Common Sense pushed for independence.
  • Adams Brothers: Championed rights and resistance.

• Religious Roots: Protestant dissent supported individual rights and resistance to tyranny.

• Key Document: Declaration of Independence reflected Enlightenment and grievances, justifying rebellion.

Impact:

• Global Impact: Sparked worldwide movements for independence and self-government.
• French Revolution: Inspired the French Revolution (1789-1799), a more radical and violent upheaval.
• Spread of Democratic Ideals: Promoted liberty, equality, and self-government, influencing Europe, America, and Asia in the 19th and 20th centuries.
• Influence on Constitutionalism: The American Constitution, despite slavery compromises, shaped global constitutionalism.
• Challenge to Absolutism: Undermined political absolutism and aristocratic privilege, advancing democratic governance.
• Nationalism: Ignited nationalism across the Americas and beyond.

Limitations and Unresolved Issues:

• Slavery: The initial ideals of equality were not fully realized, as slavery was not immediately abolished, and the issue of slavery continued to divide the American nation, ultimately leading to the Civil War. The Constitution included compromises that protected the institution of slavery which shows the inherent limitation of the revolution.
• Limited Suffrage: Voting rights were initially restricted to white male property owners, excluding women, Black Americans, Native Americans, and many poor whites which went against the Revolution's lofty goals.
• Native American Rights: The revolution led to increased westward expansion, which displaced Native American tribes and resulted in ongoing conflicts over land and resources. The revolution ultimately worsened the situation for Native Americans due to colonial encroachment.
• Economic Inequality: Significant economic inequalities persisted in the new nation, creating tensions between different social classes and illustrating the fact that the Revolution benefited some groups more than others.

Key Persons & Contributions

• George Washington:
  • Significance: Essential for unifying the colonies and leading the Continental Army to victory.
  • Contribution: Commander-in-Chief, Continental Army; symbol of unity.
  • Ideas: Civic virtue, leadership.
• Thomas Jefferson:
  • Significance: Articulated the ideals of the Revolution and provided a philosophical framework for American democracy.
  • Contribution: Author, Declaration of Independence; Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom; 3rd U.S. President.
  • Ideas: Natural rights, republicanism, limited government.
  • Books/Documents: Declaration of Independence, Notes on the State of Virginia. The Declaration established the foundation for what would come with the end of the war.
• John Adams:
  • Significance: A key advocate for independence and later a diplomat and president who helped shape the new nation.
  • Contribution: Advocate for independence; diplomat; 2nd U.S. President.
  • Ideas: Republicanism, rule of law, balanced government.
• Benjamin Franklin:
  • Significance: Played a crucial role in securing French support and promoting American ideals abroad.
  • Contribution: Diplomat (France); printer; inventor; enlightenment thinker.
  • Ideas: Pragmatism, self-improvement, civic virtue.
  • Books/Documents: Poor Richard's Almanack.
• Samuel Adams:
  • Significance: A master organizer who helped to galvanize colonial resistance.
  • Contribution: Organizer; agitator; Sons of Liberty.
  • Ideas: Resistance to tyranny, popular sovereignty.
• Patrick Henry:
  • Significance: A powerful orator who inspired colonists to fight for liberty.
  • Contribution: Orator; "Give me liberty, or give me death!"
  • Ideas: Liberty, resistance to tyranny.
• Thomas Paine:
  • Significance: His "Common Sense" revolutionized colonial thought and paved the way for independence.
  • Contribution: Pamphleteer; Common Sense.
  • Ideas: Independence, republicanism, popular sovereignty.
  • Books/Documents: Common Sense, The American Crisis.
• John Hancock:
  • Significance: A wealthy merchant and influential patriot who helped to finance the Revolution.
  • Contribution: President, Continental Congress; financier.
  • Ideas: Patriotism, mercantile interests.
• Alexander Hamilton:
  • Significance: A key figure in establishing a strong national government and shaping the American economy.
  • Contribution: Aide to Washington; Federalist Papers; first Secretary of the Treasury.
  • Ideas: Strong central government, economic development.
  • Books/Documents: The Federalist Papers.
• James Madison:
  • Significance: The "Father of the Constitution" and a major architect of American government.
  • Contribution: "Father of the Constitution"; Federalist Papers; 4th U.S. President.
  • Ideas: Federalism, separation of powers, checks and balances.
  • Books/Documents: The Federalist Papers.
• Abigail Adams:
  • Significance: An early advocate for women's rights who offered valuable insights into the political issues of her time.
  • Contribution: Advocate for women's rights; political advisor (to John Adams).
  • Ideas: Women's education, gender equality.
  • Books/Documents: Correspondence with John Adams.

Quick Revision

American Revolution: Quick Summary

Causes

• Social: Class tensions, strong local identity, and population growth fueled desire for autonomy.
• Economic: "No taxation without representation" (Stamp Act, Tea Act), mercantilism (Navigation Acts), and post-war taxes angered colonists.
• Political: Tradition of self-governance clashed with British control; end of salutary neglect and Intolerable Acts spurred rebellion.
• Ideological: Enlightenment ideas (Locke, Montesquieu), republicanism, and pamphlets like Paine’s Common Sense justified revolt.

Major Events Leading to Revolution

• French and Indian War (1754-1763): Increased British debt, leading to colonial taxes; reduced French threat boosted colonial confidence.
• Proclamation of 1763: Restricted westward expansion, angering colonists.
• Sugar Act (1764), Currency Act (1764): Taxed imports, restricted currency, hurting economy.
• Stamp Act (1765): Direct tax sparked protests, united colonies (Stamp Act Congress, Sons of Liberty).
• Townshend Acts (1767): New taxes led to boycotts, increased tensions.
• Boston Massacre (1770): Clash killed five; Patriot propaganda fueled anti-British sentiment.
• Tea Act (1773) & Boston Tea Party (1773): Tea monopoly led to defiant tea dumping; British retaliated with Intolerable Acts (1774).
• First Continental Congress (1774): Coordinated resistance, called for boycott.
• Lexington and Concord (1775): First battles marked war’s start.

Key Events & Documents

• Second Continental Congress (1775-1781): Formed Continental Army (Washington as leader), declared independence (1776).
• Bunker Hill (1775): Showed colonial resolve; King George III declared rebellion.
• Common Sense (1776): Paine’s pamphlet swayed public for independence.
• Declaration of Independence (1776): Jefferson’s document asserted natural rights, listed grievances against king.

Revolutionary War

• British Advantages: Larger army, navy, economy, Loyalist support.
• American Advantages: Home terrain, motivated troops, French alliance.
• Turning Points: Trenton/Princeton (1776-77) boosted morale; Saratoga (1777) secured French aid; Yorktown (1781) ended major fighting.

Consequences

• Human Cost: ~7,200 American battle deaths, many from disease/prisons.
• Slavery/Inequality: Some slaves escaped; Northern states moved toward emancipation, but slavery persisted in the South, exposing liberty’s limits. Voting restricted to white male property owners, excluding women, Black Americans, Native Americans, and poor whites.
• Political/Social Change: States adopted constitutions with religious freedom; new American identity emerged, though regional tensions lingered.
• Economic Disruption: Trade faltered, but domestic manufacturing grew.
• Treaty of Paris (1783): Britain recognized U.S. independence, set borders to Mississippi River.
• Articles of Confederation (1781-1789): Weak central government led to instability, prompting Constitutional Convention.
• U.S. Constitution (1789): Established stronger government with three branches, checks and balances, and Bill of Rights.

Influence of Enlightenment Ideas

• Locke’s natural rights, Montesquieu’s separation of powers, and Paine’s Common Sense shaped revolutionary ideals of liberty, self-government, and resistance to tyranny. British traditions (Magna Carta, English Bill of Rights) and colonial self-rule reinforced these principles.

Impact

• Inspired global independence movements (e.g., French Revolution), spread democratic ideals, challenged absolutism, and fueled nationalism.

Limitations

• Slavery endured, suffrage was limited, Native American displacement worsened, and economic inequality persisted, highlighting the Revolution’s incomplete promises.

Key Figures

• Washington: Led army, unified colonies.
• Jefferson: Wrote Declaration, championed rights.
• Paine: Common Sense galvanized support.
• Adams (John): Pushed independence, shaped government.
• Franklin: Secured French aid, promoted ideals.