Intelligence (बुद्धि)

Definitions

• Oxford: PLUK – Perceive, Learn, Understand, Know.
• Binet: Judging, understanding, reasoning well.
• Wechsler: Think rationally, act purposefully, adapt to the environment.
• Gardner & Sternberg: Modify/shapes the environment.
• NCERT: Understand world, think rationally, use resources effectively.

Key Characteristics

• Combination of abilities (thinking, understanding, problem-solving).
• Problem-solving & critical thinking skills.
• Adaptability & creativity.
• Effective communication.

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Types of Intelligence

1. Cognitive Intelligence (संज्ञानात्मक बुद्धि)

• Learning, reasoning, problem-solving, memory.
• Piaget’s Cognitive Development Stages:
  1. Sensorimotor (0-2 yrs)
  2. Preoperational (2-7 yrs)
  3. Concrete Operational (7-11 yrs)
  4. Formal Operational (11+ yrs)

2. Social Intelligence (सामाजिक बुद्धि)

• Understanding and managing social relationships.
• Carl Albrecht’s SPACE Model:
  • Situational Awareness
  • Presence
  • Authenticity
  • Clarity
  • Empathy

3. Emotional Intelligence (भावनात्मक बुद्धि)

• Understanding & managing emotions (self & others).
• Gardner’s Intrapersonal & Interpersonal Intelligence.
• Salovey & Mayer PUUM Model:
  • Perceive, Use, Understand, Manage emotions.
• Goleman’s 5 EI Components:
  1. Self-Awareness
  2. Self-Regulation
  3. Self-Motivation
  4. Empathy
  5. Social Skills

4. Cultural Intelligence (सांस्कृतिक बुद्धि)

• Understanding & adapting to different cultures.
• Sternberg: Intelligence is shaped by culture.
• Vygotsky: Higher mental functions are culturally influenced.
• Western vs. Non-Western Views:
  • Western: Individual success, analytical focus.
  • Non-Western: Social relations, holistic intelligence.

5. Spiritual Intelligence (आध्यात्मिक बुद्धि)

• Understanding self, purpose, human values.
• Danah Zohar & Ian Marshall: Spiritual intelligence = Ultimate intelligence.
• Key Aspects: Compassion, respect for nature, humanistic approach.

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Additional Concepts

• Thorndike's Theory:

  1. Social Intelligence – Understanding people.
  2. Concrete Intelligence – Practical skills.
  3. Abstract Intelligence – Logical/mathematical skills.

• Heredity vs. Environment:

  • Twins: Reared together (0.90 correlation), apart (0.72).
  • Intelligence is both genetic & environmental.

• Indian Perspective:

  • Integrated intelligence: Cognitive, social, emotional, entrepreneurial.
  • Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam – World as one family.

• IQ (Intelligence Quotient):

  • William Stern’s Formula: IQ = (Mental Age / Chronological Age) × 100

Personality

Definitions

• NCERT: Unique & stable qualities influencing behavior over time.
• Allport: Dynamic organization of psycho-physical systems determining adjustment.
• Eysenck: Sum total of potential behavior patterns.
• Cattell: Predictability of behavior.

Characteristics

• Dual Components: Physical & psychological.
• Uniqueness: Distinctive in individuals.
• Stability: Relatively consistent.
• Dynamism: Can evolve over time.

Determinants of Personality

1. Genetics – Inherited traits.
2. Environment – Family, culture, upbringing.
3. Psychological Factors – Thoughts, emotions.
4. Social Interaction – Peers, relationships.
5. Biological Factors – Brain structure, hormones.
6. Life Experiences – Trauma, stress.
7. Cultural Influences – Values, societal norms.

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Approaches to Personality

Type Approach

• Hippocrates: Four temperaments (Sanguine, Choleric, Melancholic, Phlegmatic).
• Charak Samhita: Three Gunas (Satva, Rajas, Tamas).
• Sheldon: Body types (Endomorph, Mesomorph, Ectomorph).
• Jung: Introversion vs. Extroversion.
• Friedman & Rosenman: Personality Types A, B, C, D.

Trait Approach

• Allport:
  • Cardinal Traits: Dominate personality (e.g., Gandhi’s non-violence).
  • Central Traits: General personality traits (e.g., honesty).
  • Secondary Traits: Situation-specific traits.
• Cattell:
  • 16 Source Traits (16PFQ) – Core stable traits.
  • Surface Traits – Observable traits.
• Eysenck:
  • Extroversion-Introversion.
  • Neuroticism-Emotional Stability.
  • Psychoticism-Socialization.
• Big Five (OCEAN Model):
  • Openness (Curious vs. Rigid).
  • Conscientiousness (Hard-working vs. Impulsive).
  • Extraversion (Outgoing vs. Reserved).
  • Agreeableness (Friendly vs. Hostile).
  • Neuroticism (Anxious vs. Stable).

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Personality Assessment

1. Self-Report Measures

• MMPI (Hathaway & McKinley) – 567 T/F questions.
• 16PFQ (Cattell) – Career & personality profiling.
• EPQ (Eysenck) – 32 traits, assesses extroversion & neuroticism.

2. Projective Techniques

• Rorschach Inkblot Test – 10 inkblots, assesses perception.
• TAT (Morgan & Murray) – Storytelling based on 31 pictures.
• Sentence Completion Test – Unfinished sentences, analyzed responses.
• Rosenzweig Picture-Frustration Study – Assesses aggression responses.
• Draw-a-Person Test – Drawing reveals subconscious traits.

3. Behavioral Analysis Techniques

• Interview: Structured (fixed) & Unstructured (open-ended).
• Observation: Non-verbal cues studied.
• Situation Reaction Test (SRT): Reaction to hypothetical situations.
• Nomination: Peer evaluation of personality traits.

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Nomothetic vs. Idiographic Approaches

Feature	Nomothetic (Group-based)	Idiographic (Individual-based)
Focus	General laws & traits	Unique personality study
Method	Quantitative (e.g., EPQ)	Qualitative (e.g., Case Study)

Learning

• Definition: Relatively permanent behavior change due to practice & experience.
• Features: Change in behavior, relatively stable, internal & external changes, creative synthesis.
• Styles:
  • Perceptual Modality: Visual, Auditory, Tactile.
  • Info Processing: Serial vs. Simultaneous, Active vs. Reflective.
  • Personality Pattern: Individual response to environment.
• Anderson’s Learning Styles:
  • Relational (Arts): Whole learning, intuitive, verbal memory, social.
  • Analytical (Science): Step-by-step, logical, abstract memory, task-oriented.
• Kolb’s Learning Styles:
  • Accommodating: Feeling & Doing (Entrepreneur).
  • Diverging: Feeling & Watching (Artist).
  • Converging: Thinking & Doing (Engineer).
  • Assimilating: Thinking & Watching (Scientist).

Memory

• Stages: Encoding (Meaning extraction) → Storage (Retention) → Retrieval (Recall).
• Models:
  • Stage Model (Atkinson & Shiffrin): Sensory → Short-Term (STM) → Long-Term (LTM).
  • Working Memory (Tulving):
    • Explicit (Declarative): Episodic (Events) & Semantic (Facts).
    • Implicit (Procedural): Skills & Processes.
  • Bartlett’s Schema Model: Memory influenced by past experiences.
  • Craik & Lockhart’s Levels of Processing:
    • Shallow Processing: Superficial learning.
    • Deep Processing: Semantic, long-term retention.

Forgetting

• Ebbinghaus's Forgetting Curve: Rapid memory loss initially, then slower decline.
• Theories:
  • Decay Theory: Memory fades over time.
  • Interference:
    • Proactive: Old disrupts new.
    • Retroactive: New disrupts old.
  • Encoding/Consolidation Failure: Info not stored properly.
  • Retrieval Failure: Absence of cues.
  • Motivated Forgetting (Freud): Suppression due to trauma.

Enhancing Memory

• Mnemonics: Keyword, Loci method.
• Chunking: Grouping info (e.g., phone numbers).
• Deep Processing: Meaning-based learning.
• PQRST Method: Preview, Question, Read, Recite, Test.

Motivation Assessment

• Definition: Drive to achieve goals.
• Methods:
  • Questionnaire (MMPI, 16PFQ).
  • Projective Techniques (Unstructured tasks).
  • Situational Test (Response observation).
  • Activity Level (Response intensity).
  • Selection Method (Choice analysis).
  • Interference Method (Persistence observation).

Definition of Stress

• Occurs when challenges exceed capabilities.
• Affects physical, emotional, cognitive, and behavioral aspects.
• Moderate stress is beneficial; excess stress is harmful.

Types of Stress

1. Hans Selye's Stress Types

• Eustress: Positive, short-term, enhances performance (e.g., game pressure).
• Distress: Negative, causes anxiety (e.g., divorce).
  • Acute: Short-term, intense (e.g., urgent task).
  • Chronic: Long-term, low intensity (e.g., financial issues).

2. Other Types

• Hyperstress: Overload, strong emotional response (e.g., work pressure).
• Hypostress: Boredom, lack of challenge (e.g., repetitive tasks).

3. Based on Causes (NCERT)

• Physical: Poor nutrition, lack of sleep.
• Environmental: Pollution, disasters.
• Social: Relationship problems, disputes.
• Psychological: Internal pressure, frustration.

Sources of Stress (Stressors)

• Life Events: Major changes (e.g., moving, breakup).
• Hassles: Daily annoyances (e.g., traffic, water shortage).
• Traumatic Events: Extreme, long-term impact (e.g., accident, robbery).

Signs & Symptoms

• Cognitive: Memory issues, poor judgment.
• Emotional: Mood swings, depression.
• Physical: Headache, dizziness, chest pain.
• Behavioral: Poor planning, substance use.

Effects of Stress

• Emotional: Anxiety, low confidence.
• Physiological: Increased stress hormones (adrenaline, cortisol).
• Cognitive: Poor concentration, reduced memory.
• Behavioral: Junk food, addiction, sleep issues.

Nature of Stress

• GAS Theory (Hans Selye): Alarm → Resistance → Exhaustion.
• Lazarus-Faulkman (Transaction Process): Primary & Secondary Appraisal.
• Holmes & Rahe (Stimulus Model): Stress as an external cause.

Stress Management (Coping Strategies)

• Task-Oriented: Finding solutions (e.g., scheduling).
• Emotion-Oriented: Managing feelings (e.g., support).
• Avoidance-Oriented: Distracting from stress (e.g., TV).
• Problem-Focused: Tackling the issue directly.
• Emotion-Focused: Managing emotions caused by stress.

Stress Management Techniques

• Relaxation: Deep breathing, muscle relaxation.
• Meditation: Alters consciousness, reduces stress.
• Biofeedback: Control body responses to stress.
• Creative Visualization: Positive imagery for goals.
• Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy: Replacing negative thoughts.
• Exercise: Improves overall well-being.

Promotion of Mental Health

• Hardiness Traits (Kubasa): Commitment, Control, Challenge.
• Life Skills:
  • Assertiveness (self-confidence).
  • Time management (prioritization).
  • Rational thinking (realistic outlook).
  • Relationship skills (communication, acceptance).
  • Overcoming bad habits (procrastination, perfectionism).
• Social Support:
  • Tangible (money/resources).
  • Informational (guidance).
  • Emotional (love/care).
• Other Factors: Balanced diet, exercise, positive thinking.