Mountains Plateaus Plains Deserts

Overview of Each Continent

Continent	Mountains	Plateaus	Plains	Deserts	Rivers	Lakes
Africa	Kilimanjaro	Ethiopian Plateau	Serengeti Plains	Sahara Desert	Nile River	Lake Victoria
	Mount Kenya	Jos Plateau	Sudanian Savanna	Kalahari Desert	Congo River	Lake Tanganyika
	Atlas Mountains	Great Karoo	Sahel	Namib Desert	Niger River	Lake Malawi
	Drakensberg Mountains	Adamawa Plateau	Okavango Delta	Danakil Desert	Zambezi River	Lake Chad
	Ruwenzori Mountains	Bié Plateau	South African Highveld	Chalbi Desert	Orange River	Lake Volta
Asia	Himalayas	Tibetan Plateau	Indo-Gangetic Plain	Gobi Desert	Yangtze River	Lake Baikal
	Karakoram	Iranian Plateau	West Siberian Plain	Arabian Desert	Yellow River	Caspian Sea
	Hindu Kush	Deccan Plateau	Manchurian Plain	Thar Desert	Mekong River	Lake Superior
	Ural Mountains	Anatolian Plateau	Mesopotamian Plain	Taklamakan Desert	Indus River	Lake Van
	Altai Mountains	Mongolian Plateau	Tarim Basin	Kyzylkum Desert	Brahmaputra River	Tonle Sap
Europe	Alps	Meseta Central	North European Plain	Accona Desert	Danube River	Lake Ladoga
	Caucasus Mountains	Bavarian Plateau	East European Plain	Bardenas Reales	Rhine River	Lake Onega
	Carpathian Mountains	Massif Central	Pannonian Plain	Tabernas Desert	Volga River	Lake Geneva
	Pyrenees	Bohemian Plateau	Po Valley	Oleshky Sands Desert	Dnieper River	Lake Balaton
	Scandinavian Mountains	Podolian Upland	Wallachian Plain	Deliblatska Peščara	Don River	Lake Constance
North America	Rocky Mountains	Colorado Plateau	Great Plains	Great Basin Desert	Mississippi River	Lake Superior
	Appalachian Mountains	Columbia Plateau	Interior Plains	Mojave Desert	Missouri River	Lake Michigan
	Alaska Range	Laurentian Plateau	Atlantic Coastal Plain	Sonoran Desert	St. Lawrence River	Great Bear Lake
	Sierra Nevada	Mexican Plateau	Gulf Coastal Plain	Chihuahuan Desert	Colorado River	Great Slave Lake
	Coast Mountains	Edwards Plateau	Central Valley (CA)	Black Rock Desert	Rio Grande	Lake Huron
South America	Andes Mountains	Altiplano	Amazon Basin	Atacama Desert	Amazon River	Lake Titicaca
	Brazilian Highlands	Guiana Highlands	Gran Chaco	Patagonian Desert	Paraná River	Lake Maracaibo
	Patagonian Andes	Mato Grosso Plateau	Llanos	Sechura Desert	Orinoco River	Lago Argentino
	Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta	Bolivian Altiplano	Pampas	La Guajira Desert	São Francisco River	General Carrera Lake
	Cordillera Real (Bolivia)	Serra do Mar	Mesopotamia (Argentina)	Monte Desert	Uruguay River	Buenos Aires Lake
Oceania	Great Dividing Range	Western Plateau	Nullarbor Plain	Great Victoria Desert	Murray River	Lake Eyre
	New Guinea Highlands	Atherton Tableland	Barkly Tableland	Great Sandy Desert	Darling River	Lake Torrens
	Southern Alps (NZ)	Kimberley Plateau	Canterbury Plains	Tanami Desert	Fly River	Lake Taupo
	Owen Stanley Range (PNG)	Mitchell Plateau	Eyre Basin	Simpson Desert	Sepik River	Lake Tekapo
	MacDonnell Ranges	Arnhem Land Plateau	Riverina	Gibson Desert	Waikato River	Lake Wanaka
Antarctica	Transantarctic Mountains	Antarctic Plateau	(Ice Plains)	(Polar Desert)	Onyx River (Ephemeral)	Lake Vostok (Subglacial)
	Ellsworth Mountains	Victoria Land Plateau			Alph River (Ephemeral)	Lake Vida (Hypersaline)
	Gamburtsev Mountains	Queen Maud Land				Lake Untersee (Meromictic)
	(Subglacial Mountains)					Lake Bonney (Meromictic)
	(Volcanic Peaks)					(Ice-covered Lakes)

Mountains

Classification based on Formation

Feature	Fold Mountains	Block Mountains (Fault-Block Mountains)	Volcanic Mountains	Dome Mountains	Residual Mountains (Erosion Mountains)
Formation Process	Collision of tectonic plates, causing folding and crumpling.	Displacement of crustal blocks along faults (fractures).	Accumulation of erupted volcanic materials (lava, ash).	Magma pushes up overlying rock layers without erupting.	Erosion of surrounding landforms, leaving resistant rock behind.
Tectonic Setting	Convergent plate boundaries.	Regions with significant faulting and crustal extension.	Volcanic hotspots, subduction zones, rift valleys.	Areas with underlying magma intrusion.	Areas with varying rock resistance to erosion.
Shape/Structure	Long, linear ranges, alternating synclines (valleys) and anticlines (ridges). Folded rock layers.	Steep, often linear slopes. Uplifted blocks (horsts) and down-dropped blocks (grabens). Fault lines evident.	Cone-shaped, often with a crater at the summit. Layered volcanic deposits.	Rounded bulge or dome shape. Exposed underlying rock layers after erosion.	Isolated hills or small mountain ranges. Often flat-topped or mesa-like.
Rock Type	Sedimentary and metamorphic rocks (often folded).	Variable rock types, often faulted sedimentary or igneous rocks.	Igneous rocks (basalt, andesite, rhyolite, etc.).	Variable rock types, depending on the original overlying rock.	Resistant sedimentary rocks (e.g., sandstone, quartzite).
Landforms	Synclines, anticlines, valleys, ridges.	Horsts, grabens, fault scarps, tilted fault blocks.	Craters, calderas, lava flows, ash deposits.	Circular or elliptical domes, exposed rock layers.	Mesas, buttes, cuestas, isolated peaks.
Examples	Himalayas, Alps, Andes, Rockies.	Vosges (France), Black Forest (Germany), Vindhya & Satpura (India), Sierra Nevada (USA), Rhine Valley, Great African Rift Valley	Kilimanjaro (Africa), Fujiyama (Japan), Mauna Loa (Hawaii), Popa (Myanmar), Vesuvius (Italy), Cotopaxi (Ecuador), St. Helens & Rainier (USA)	Black Hills (USA).	Aravalis, Urals, Eastern & Western Ghats, Nilgiris, Parasnath, Rajmahal Hills
Age	Can be young (Himalayas) or old (Appalachians).	Variable, depending on faulting activity.	Relatively young geologically (active or dormant).	Variable, depends on the timing of magma intrusion.	Can be any age, depending on the timing of erosion.
Other Features	Often associated with earthquakes and metamorphism.	Often associated with earthquakes and geothermal activity.	Often associated with volcanic activity, geothermal features, and potentially lahars/mudflows.	Potential for uplift and erosion.	Landscapes reflect differential erosion.
Diagrammatic Representation	(Imagine a wavy line representing folded rock layers)	(Imagine a staircase-like arrangement of uplifted and down-dropped blocks)	(Imagine a cone with layers representing lava flows)	(Imagine a bulge with concentric rock layers)	(Imagine a flat-topped hill remaining after surrounding area has been eroded away)

Classification based on Period of origin (Orogeny)

Orogeny	Time Period	Characteristics	Examples
Precambrian	> 4 billion years ago	- Oldest mountains on Earth. - Highly eroded and denuded. - Composed of crystalline and metamorphic rocks. - Appear as low, rounded hills.	Laurentian Mountains (Canada), Algoman Mountains, Aravalli Range (India), Canadian Shield uplands, Dharwar Hills (India), Western Australian Shield
Caledonian	Late Silurian to Early Devonian(approx. 400–450 million years ago)	- Formed due to continental collision. - Eroded to moderate heights. - Rounded features, now residual in nature.	Scottish Highlands, Scandinavian Mountains (Norway & Sweden), Appalachian Mountains (eastern USA), East Greenland Mountains, parts of Ireland and Wales
Hercynian	Carboniferous to early Permian(approx. 300–350 million years ago)	- Also known as the Variscan Orogeny. - Folded and faulted structures. - Moderately elevated, often worn down.	Central Massif (France), Black Forest (Germany), Harz Mountains (Germany), Sudetes (Czech Republic/Poland), Ural Mountains (Russia), Vosges (France)
Alpine	Tertiary Period(65 to 7 million years ago)	- Youngest and highest mountain systems. - Rugged, steep slopes, sharp peaks. - Still tectonically active.	Himalayas (Asia), Alps (Europe), Andes (South America), Rockies (North America), Atlas Mountains (Northwest Africa), Carpathians, Caucasus, Zagros, Pyrenees

Asia

Mountain Range	Location	Characteristics
Pamir Knot	Tajikistan	Starting point for many mountain ranges; a high-altitude plateau; considered a "knot" or junction from which major Asian mountain systems radiate; also known as the "Roof of the World."
Himalayan Range	India, Nepal, Bhutan, Pakistan, China	Youngest and highest mountain range; formed by the collision of the Eurasian and Indo-Australian tectonic plates; known for its extreme elevation, rugged terrain, and significant influence on regional climate; source of major rivers.
		Includes distinct sub-ranges: Trans-Himalayas (Karakoram, Ladakh, Zaskar, Kailas), Great Himalayas (highest peaks), Middle Himalayas, and Shivalik Himalayas.
Arakan Yoma	Myanmar	Extension of the Himalayan range; forms a natural barrier between Myanmar and the Indian subcontinent; continues southward as the Andaman and Nicobar Islands; composed of rugged, forested terrain.
Pegu Yoma	Myanmar	Extension of the Himalayan range, parallel to Arakan Yoma; less prominent than Arakan Yoma.
Zagros Mountains	Iran	Located between the Caspian Sea and the Persian Gulf; a long, linear range folded sedimentary rocks; important for its biodiversity and cultural significance; significant source for water resources in the region.
Taurus Mountains	Turkey	A major east-west trending mountain chain that runs across southern Turkey. A source of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers.
Pontic Mountains	Turkey	Located in Turkey, often mentioned alongside the Taurus Mountains; runs parallel to the Black Sea coast; known for its lush, forested slopes.
Yablonovy Mountains	Siberia, Russia	Located in Siberia, Russia; part of the East Siberian Mountains; relatively low elevation and sparse vegetation; historically significant for mining activities.
Stanovoy Range	Siberia, Russia	Located in Siberia, Russia, often mentioned alongside the Yablonovy Mountains; marks the watershed between the Arctic and Pacific drainage basins; remote and sparsely populated.
Verkhoyansk Range	Siberia, Russia	Located in one of the coldest inhabited areas of Siberia, Russia; known for its extreme continental climate and permafrost; significant for geological research related to climate change.
Altai Mountains	Russia, China, Kazakhstan, Mongolia	Located between these four countries; diverse landscapes including glaciers, alpine meadows, and coniferous forests; a UNESCO World Heritage Site known for its rich biodiversity and cultural significance; serves as a biogeographic transition zone.
Hindu Kush	Pakistan and Afghanistan	Located between Pakistan and Afghanistan; historically significant for its strategic location and challenging passes; part of the broader Himalayan mountain system.
Kun Lun	China	One of the longest mountain ranges in Asia, forms the northern edge of the Tibetan Plateau, a major east-west trending range high elevation and arid climate; acts as a barrier between the Tibetan Plateau and the Tarim Basin.
Tian Shan	Tajikistan, Kazakhstan, China, and other neighboring countries	Forms the southern border of Kazakhstan and extends across much of Central Asia. Contains glaciated peaks and alpine meadows.
Asir Mountains	Saudi Arabia and Yemen	Located in the Arabian Peninsula; relatively low-lying mountain range; significant for its influence on regional precipitation and vegetation patterns; contains unique ecosystems and cultural landscapes.
Makran Range	Pakistan	Located in Pakistan; a coastal mountain range arid climate and sparse vegetation; experiences frequent seismic activity; important for its strategic location along the Arabian Sea coast.
Sulaiman Range	Pakistan	Located in Pakistan, often mentioned alongside the Makran Range; rugged terrain and arid climate; inhabited by diverse tribal communities.
Ural Mountains	Russia and Kazakhstan	Divides Europe and Asia; relatively low-lying mountain range; rich in mineral resources; historically significant as a transportation corridor and industrial region.

Africa

Mountain Range	Location	Characteristics
Mount Kilimanjaro	Tanzania	Volcanic mountain; the highest peak in Africa; known for its snow-capped summit and diverse ecosystems; a popular destination for mountaineering and tourism; a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Atlas Mountains	Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia	Young folded mountains; located in North Africa; influence regional climate; home to diverse flora and fauna; significant for its Berber cultural heritage; consists of various sub-ranges.
		High peak is Mount Toubkal.
Mount Kenya	Kenya	Volcanic mountain; the second highest peak in Africa; glaciers and afro-alpine vegetation; an important source of water resources for the region; a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Mount Rwenzori	Democratic Republic of Congo	Known as "Mountains of the Moon"; permanent snow and glaciers; home to unique afro-montane ecosystems; provides important water resources for the surrounding area.
Ethiopian Highlands	Ethiopia	A rugged mass of mountains in Ethiopia and Eritrea, forming the largest continuous area of its altitude in the continent, with some sources saying that Simien Mountains is the high peak or the most popular peak and other sources saying its Ras Dashen
		Highest peak is Ras Dashen.
Drakensberg Mountains	South Africa, Lesotho	A major mountain range in Southern Africa, dramatic escarpment that is the most easterly portion of the Great Escarpment, which encloses the central Southern African plateau.
Mount Cameroon	Cameroon	Active volcano; located near the coast of West Africa; known for its rich biodiversity and volcanic activity; subject to frequent eruptions.

Europe

Mountain Range	Location	Characteristics
Caucasus Mountains	Russia, Georgia, Azerbaijan	Located between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea; a high mountain range; Mount Elbrus is the highest peak in Europe; historically significant as a cultural and political boundary; known for its diverse ecosystems and ethnic groups.
Alps Mountains	France, Italy, Switzerland, Austria, etc.	A major mountain range in Europe; high peaks, glaciers, and alpine meadows; a popular destination for skiing and tourism; source of major rivers; significant for its cultural and historical importance.
		Border between France and Italy; Mount Blanc is the highest point.
Pyrenees Mountains	Spain and France	Forms a natural border between Spain and France; rugged terrain and diverse ecosystems; important for its cultural significance and historical role as a barrier; contains unique flora and fauna.
Jura Mountains	France and Switzerland	Forms a border between France and Switzerland; composed of folded sedimentary rocks; known for its distinctive geological features and watchmaking industry.
Vosges Mountains	France and Germany	Forms a border between France and Germany; rounded summits and forested slopes; historically significant for mining and forestry; provides scenic landscapes for recreation and tourism.
Black Forest	Germany	A block mountain range; located in southwestern Germany; known for its dense forests and picturesque villages; a popular destination for tourism and outdoor activities; source of the Danube and Neckar Rivers.
Balkan Mountains	Bulgaria	Stretches from the Serbian-Bulgarian border to the Black Sea coast. It separates the northern and southern parts of Bulgaria.
Apennines	Italy	Forms the backbone of the Italian Peninsula; Includes volcanic mountains like Mount Etna, Stromboli, and Vesuvius; rugged terrain and diverse landscapes; historically significant for its role in Italian culture.
Pennines	UK	a range of hills and mountains separating northern England from Southern England
Grampian Mountains	UK	A range of hills and mountains separating northern Scotland from Southern Scotland
Cambrian Mountains	UK	Dominant upland region in Wales, largely pasture with scattered woodland.

North America

Mountain Range	Location	Characteristics
Brooks Range	Alaska	Located in northern Alaska; a remote and rugged mountain range; experiences harsh Arctic conditions; contains important wildlife habitat.
Alaska Range	Alaska	Located in Alaska; contains Mount McKinley (Denali), the highest peak in North America; glaciers, snow-capped peaks, and extreme weather; significant for its wilderness and scenic beauty.
Mackenzie Mountains	Canada	Located in western Canada; a rugged and remote mountain range; glaciers, alpine meadows, and boreal forests; source of major rivers.
Coastal Range	West Coast of North America	Not a specific, single range. Refers to the multiple mountain ranges that run along the Pacific Coast of North America, from Alaska to California.
Rocky Mountains	Western North America	Longest mountain range in North America; extends from Canada to the United States; high peaks, rugged terrain, and diverse ecosystems; a popular destination for recreation and tourism.
		High peak is Mount Elbert.
Sierra Nevada	California	Located in California; known for its granite peaks, giant sequoia trees, and scenic beauty; an important source of water resources for California; contains Yosemite National Park.
		High Peak Mount Whitney.
Mount Rainier	Cascadia	Is the highest mountain of the Cascade Range of the Pacific Northwest and the most topographically prominent mountain in the contiguous United States.
Appalachian Mountains	Eastern North America	Older mountain range; located in eastern North America; rounded peaks and forested slopes; historically significant for its role in early American settlement and development; high peak Mount Mitchell.

South America

Mountain Range	Location	Characteristics
Andes Mountains	Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chile, Argentina	Longest mountain range in the world (approximately 7,000 km); high peaks, active volcanoes, and diverse ecosystems; influences regional climate and vegetation patterns; home to indigenous cultures; formed by the subduction of the Nazca Plate under the South American Plate.
		Mount Aconcagua is the highest peak in the Americas.
Sierra da Mar	Brazil	Located primarily in southeastern Brazil, close to the Atlantic coast. Known for its biodiversity and steep slopes.

Australia

Mountain Range	Location	Characteristics
Great Dividing Range	Eastern Australia	Extends along the eastern coast of Australia; a series of low mountains, hills and plateaus; influences rainfall and drainage patterns; source of major rivers; contains diverse ecosystems and recreational areas; Mount Kosciuszko is the highest peak.
Darling Range	Western Australia	Located in Western Australia; a low mountain range; significant for its influence on water resources and biodiversity; historically important for forestry and mining activities.
MacDonnell Ranges	Central Australia	Located in central Australia; rugged terrain and arid climate; significant for its Aboriginal cultural heritage and natural beauty; contains iconic landmarks such as Uluru (Ayers Rock) and Kings Canyon.
Southern Alps (South Alps)	South Island, New Zealand	Dominates the landscape of the South Island of New Zealand; high peaks, glaciers, and alpine meadows; receives high precipitation and snowfall; a popular destination for skiing, mountaineering, and tourism.
		Contains Mount Cook (Aoraki) the highest peak in New Zealand.

Antarctica

Mountain Range	Location	Characteristics
Transantarctic Mountains	Antarctica	A major mountain range that divides Antarctica into East and West Antarctica; extends for over 3,500 kilometers; rugged terrain and icy peaks; important for its geological history and scientific research.
Queen Maud Mountains	East Antarctica	Located in East Antarctica; known for their prominent peaks and glacial features; provides important information about the geological history of the continent.
		Contains Vinson Massif (highest peak in Antarctica).
Mount Erebus	Ross Island	Active volcano; located on Ross Island; known for its persistent lava lake and volcanic activity; a site of ongoing scientific study; one of the southernmost active volcanoes on Earth.
		Vinson Massif is the highest peak.

Plateaus

Plateau	Location	Characteristics
Tibetan Plateau	China	Largest plateau in the world; high altitude; arid climate and sparse vegetation; has significant influence on Asian climate and hydrology; the source of major rivers.
Pamir Plateau	Tajikistan	Located near the Pamir Knot, the "Roof of the World"; high altitude; a region of glaciers, rugged terrain, and sparse vegetation; strategically important location.
Anatolian Plateau	Turkey	A high-altitude plateau in central Turkey; semi-arid climate and steppe vegetation; historically significant as a crossroads of civilizations.
Potwar Plateau	Pakistan	semi-arid climate, and features dissected by gullies and ravines; contains important archaeological sites and oilfields.
Loess Plateau	China	Composed of wind-blown silt deposits (loess); fertile soils and terraced agriculture; susceptible to erosion; historically significant for its agricultural productivity.
Taklamakan Plateau	China	extreme aridity, extensive sand dunes, and sparse vegetation; part of the larger Taklamakan Desert.
Central Siberian Plateau	Russia	a rugged landscape of plateaus and mountain ranges; experiences a harsh continental climate; significant for its mineral resources and Siberian wilderness.
Mongolian Plateau	Mongolia	A high-altitude plateau in central Asia; grasslands and semi-desert vegetation; significant for its nomadic cultures and pastoral land use.

Plateau	Location	Characteristics
Katanga Plateau	DRC, Zambia, Angola	Known for copper mining; a mineral-rich region in Central Africa; savanna vegetation and tropical climate.
Jos Plateau	Nigeria	Known for tin production; a temperate climate and savanna vegetation; has a unique geological history.
Ethiopian Plateau	Ethiopia	A rugged highland region; fertile soils and diverse ecosystems; important for its agricultural productivity and cultural heritage.
Madagascar Plateau	Madagascar	diverse landscapes and unique ecosystems; home to many endemic species.
Wadai Plateau	Chad	Known for uranium mining; a semi-arid plateau in eastern Chad; sparse vegetation and desert-like conditions.

Plateau	Location	Characteristics
Meseta Central	Spain	A large plateau in central Spain; semi-arid climate and steppe vegetation; Madrid, the capital of Spain, is located on it.

Plateau	Location	Characteristics
Ozark Plateau	Primarily US (Missouri, Arkansas, Oklahoma)	Domed plateau; forests, rivers, and lakes; is also a plateau that has been uplifted in response to a mantle thermal upwelling
Piedmont Plateau	US (Eastern)	Lies at the foot of the Appalachian Mountains; rolling hills, forests, and agriculture; an important region for economic development.
Columbia Plateau	US (Washington, Oregon, Idaho)	Formed by basalt lava flows; flat terrain, fertile soils, and agriculture; an important region for wheat production.
Colorado Plateau	US (Colorado, Utah, Arizona, New Mexico)	high elevation, arid climate, and colorful rock formations; contains iconic landscapes such as the Grand Canyon and Monument Valley.
Mexican Plateau	Mexico	A high-altitude plateau in central Mexico; arid and semi-arid climate, scrub vegetation, and agriculture; home to major cities and population centers.
Canadian Shield	Canada	A large area of exposed Precambrian rock; lakes, forests, and mineral resources; sparsely populated; important for its natural resources.
Yukon Plateau	Canada/Alaska	Located in Yukon Territory (Canada) and Alaska (US); rugged terrain and subarctic climate; sparsely populated; important for its mineral resources and wilderness.

Plateau	Location	Characteristics
Bolivian Plateau	Bolivia	A high-altitude plateau in the Andes Mountains; arid climate and sparse vegetation; La Paz, the capital of Bolivia, is located on it.
Brazilian Plateau	Brazil	A large plateau in eastern and central Brazil; diverse landscapes including grasslands, forests, and savanna; important for agriculture and mining.
Patagonian Plateau	Argentina	Located in southern Argentina; arid climate, scrub vegetation, and strong winds; sparsely populated; important for sheep farming and natural resources.

Plateau/Tableland	Location	Characteristics
Arnhem Plateau	Northern Territory	sandstone escarpments, savanna woodlands, and Aboriginal rock art sites; important for its biodiversity and cultural significance.
Atherton Tableland	Queensland	A fertile upland plateau in northeastern Queensland. rainforests, farms, and scenic landscapes; an important agricultural region.

Plains

Grassland	Location	Characteristics
Steppes	Eurasia (Eastern Europe and Asia)	Temperate grasslands; short grasses, arid climate, and seasonal temperature variations; historically significant for nomadic cultures and pastoralism.
Savanna	Africa (primarily)	Tropical grasslands; scattered trees, warm climate, and distinct wet and dry seasons; home to diverse wildlife.
Prairies	North America (primarily US and Canada)	Temperate grasslands; tall grasses, fertile soils, and agriculture; historically significant for wheat production and ranching.
Pampas	South America (Argentina, Uruguay)	Temperate grasslands; tall grasses, fertile soils, and agriculture; historically significant for cattle ranching and agriculture.
Veld	South Africa	Temperate grasslands; located at higher elevations; varied vegetation, including grasses, shrubs, and small trees; an important region for agriculture and mining.
Downs	Australia	Temperate grasslands; rolling hills, fertile soils, and agriculture; primarily used for sheep grazing.
Canterbury	New Zealand	Temperate grasslands; located on the South Island of New Zealand; fertile soils and intensive agriculture; important for dairy farming and sheep grazing.
Llanos	Venezuela	Tropical grasslands; seasonal flooding and savanna vegetation; home to diverse wildlife, including capybaras, caimans, and birds.
Campos	Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay, Argentina	Tropical grasslands; savanna vegetation, seasonal rainfall, and diverse plant and animal life; important for cattle ranching and agriculture.
Puszta	Hungary	Temperate grasslands; flat terrain, fertile soils, and agricultural use; historically significant as a landscape of Hungarian folklore and national identity.
Nullarbor Plain	Australia	an arid, flat, almost treeless area of shrubland located along the Great Australian Bight coast of Australia, the world's largest limestone karst landscape.

Deserts

Desert	Location	Characteristics
Thar Desert	India/Pakistan	Located in northwestern India and eastern Pakistan; sandy terrain, arid climate, and sparse vegetation; experiences hot summers and cool winters; relatively high population density compared to other deserts; culturally significant for its traditional settlements and pastoralism.
Gobi Desert	China	Located in northern China and southern Mongolia; a cold desert; rocky terrain, arid climate, and sparse vegetation; experiences extreme temperature variations; historically significant for its role in the Silk Road trade route; home to unique wildlife.
Rub' al-Khali	Saudi Arabia	One of the largest sand deserts in the world; towering sand dunes, extreme aridity, and high temperatures; virtually uninhabited; important for its oil and gas reserves.
Dasht-e Kavir	Iran	A salt desert located in central Iran; saline terrain, extreme aridity, and high temperatures; sparsely populated; supports limited agriculture in oases.
Dasht-e Lut	Iran	Another major desert in Iran; known for its extreme surface temperatures, which are among the highest recorded on Earth; Yardangs, salt pans, and sand ridges.
Karakum Desert	Turkmenistan	sand dunes, arid climate, and sparse vegetation; significant for its natural gas resources; traversed by the Karakum Canal, which provides water for irrigation and transportation.
Kyzylkum Desert	Uzbekistan	Located in Central Asia; also known as Qyzylqum is the 16th largest desert in the world.

Desert	Location	Characteristics
Sahara Desert	North Africa	The largest hot desert in the world; stretches across multiple countries; sand dunes, rocky terrain, and extreme aridity; experiences high temperatures and infrequent rainfall.
Namib Desert	Namibia	A coastal desert; sand dunes, gravel plains, and fog; home to unique plant and animal adaptations; known for its scenic beauty and geological formations.
Kalahari Desert	Botswana, South Africa	A semi-arid sandy savanna; sparse vegetation, seasonal rainfall, and diverse wildlife; home to the San people; experiences hot summers and cool winters.
Libyan Desert	Libya	A part of the Sahara Desert; sand seas, rocky plateaus, and extreme aridity; experiences scorching temperatures and infrequent rainfall.
Nubian Desert	Sudan	Located in northeastern Sudan; part of the Sahara Desert; sand dunes, rocky terrain, and arid climate; historically significant for its ancient civilizations.

Desert	Location	Characteristics
Mojave Desert	US (California, Nevada, Arizona, Utah)	unique flora, including Joshua trees; Death Valley (the lowest and driest point in North America); experiences extreme temperatures.
Sonoran Desert	US (Arizona, California), Mexico	diverse plant life, including saguaro cacti; experiences bimodal rainfall (winter and summer); significant for its biodiversity.
Great Basin Desert	US (Nevada, Utah, California, Oregon, Idaho)	basin and range topography, sagebrush vegetation, and internal drainage; experiences cold winters and hot summers; contains saline lakes and playas.
Chihuahuan Desert	US (Texas, New Mexico), Mexico	warm climate, scrub vegetation, and diverse cactus species; contains gypsum dunes and unique geological formations; experiences summer monsoon rains.
Great Salt Lake Desert	US (Utah)	A large dry lake bed located in the northern part of the U.S. state of Utah, between the Great Salt Lake and Nevada
Sierra Nevada Desert	US (Eastern California)	Characterized as a rain shadow desert with dry conditions with unique flora, including pinyon pine trees.

Desert	Location	Characteristics
Atacama Desert	Chile/Peru	Considered the driest non-polar desert in the world; extreme aridity, rocky terrain, and sparse vegetation; significant for its mineral resources (e.g., copper, nitrates).
Patagonian Desert	Argentina	arid climate, shrub vegetation, and strong winds; sparsely populated; important for sheep farming and natural resources.

Desert	Location	Characteristics
Great Victoria Desert	Western Australia/South Australia	Largest desert in Australia; sand ridges, gibber plains, and salt lakes; experiences hot summers and mild winters; sparse vegetation; home to unique wildlife.
Great Sandy Desert	Western Australia	red sand dunes, spinifex grasslands, and arid climate; experiences hot summers and mild winters; sparsely populated; significant for its Aboriginal cultural heritage.
Gibson Desert	Western Australia	sand ridges, gibber plains, and sparse vegetation; experiences hot summers and cool winters; largely uninhabited; named after explorer Alfred Gibson.
Simpson Desert	Central Australia	long, parallel sand dunes, arid climate, and sparse vegetation; experiences extreme temperatures; sparsely populated; home to unique wildlife.
Tanami Desert	Northern Territory	rocky terrain, sand plains, and arid climate; experiences hot summers and mild winters; sparsely populated; significant for its Aboriginal cultural heritage and mining activities.
Sturt Stony Desert	South Australia	stony pavements (gibber plains), arid climate, and sparse vegetation; experiences extreme temperatures; challenging terrain for travel and settlement.

Rivers

River	Location	Characteristics
Yangtze (Chang Jiang)	China	Longest river in Asia; originates in the Tibetan Plateau; flows eastward through diverse landscapes; empties into the East China Sea; important for transportation, agriculture, and hydroelectric power.
		Shanghai and Wuhan cities are located on it.
Yellow River (Huang He)	China	Originates in the Kunlun Mountains; flows eastward through the Loess Plateau; empties into the Yellow Sea; known for its high sediment load and frequent flooding; historically important for its role in Chinese civilization.
Irrawaddy River	Myanmar	Flows southward through Myanmar; empties into the Andaman Sea; important for transportation, agriculture, and irrigation; known for its rich biodiversity.
Mekong River	China, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam	Originates in the Tibetan Plateau; flows through Southeast Asia; empties into the South China Sea; important for transportation, agriculture, and fishing; significant for its biodiversity and cultural heritage.
Amu Darya	Tajikistan, Afghanistan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan	Originates in the Pamir Mountains; historically flowed into the Aral Sea (now severely diminished); important for irrigation and agriculture in Central Asia; experiences water scarcity and environmental challenges.
Syr Darya	Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan	Originates in the Tian Shan Mountains; historically flowed into the Aral Sea (now severely diminished); important for irrigation and agriculture in Central Asia; experiences water scarcity and environmental challenges.
Tigris River	Turkey, Iraq, Syria	Originates in the Taurus Mountains of Turkey; flows southeastward through Iraq; joins the Euphrates River to form the Shatt al-Arab; empties into the Persian Gulf; historically significant for its role in Mesopotamian civilization.
Euphrates River	Turkey, Syria, Iraq	Originates in the Taurus Mountains of Turkey; flows southeastward through Syria and Iraq; joins the Tigris River to form the Shatt al-Arab; empties into the Persian Gulf; historically significant for its role in Mesopotamian civilization.
Jordan River	Israel, Jordan, Palestine	Flows through the Jordan Rift Valley; empties into the Dead Sea; historically and religiously significant; important for water resources in a dry region; experiences water scarcity and political tensions.
Ob River	Russia (Siberia)	Its mouth is the Ob Gulf, that flows into the Arctic Ocean
Yenisey River	Russia (Siberia)	Flows northwards and is the central of the three great Siberian rivers that flow into the Arctic Ocean
Lena River	Russia (Siberia)	The easternmost of the three great Siberian rivers that flow into the Arctic Ocean. its mouth is the Laptev Sea

River	Location	Characteristics
Nile River	Uganda, South Sudan, Sudan, Egypt	World's longest river; formed by the confluence of the White Nile and Blue Nile; flows northward through diverse landscapes; empties into the Mediterranean Sea; vital for agriculture, transportation, and water resources in a predominantly arid region; historically significant for its role in ancient Egyptian civilization.
Congo River (Zaire)	DRC, Republic of Congo, Angola, Zambia, Tanzania, Cameroon, CAR, and Rwanda	Crosses the equator; third-longest river in Africa; discharges a large volume of water into the Atlantic Ocean. Known for its deep waters and dense rainforests.
Limpopo River	South Africa, Zimbabwe, Mozambique	Flows eastward into the Indian Ocean, and it serves as a border between South Africa and Botswana as well as Zimbabwe and South Africa. Characterized by a subtropical to arid climate.
Niger River	Guinea, Mali, Niger, Benin, Nigeria	the third-longest river in Africa, the oil river and flows into the Atlantic Ocean in the Niger Delta. Characterized by both semi-arid and tropical, depending on the region it's flowing through
Zambezi River	Zambia, Angola, Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Mozambique	the fourth-longest river in Africa, flows through many countries, and empties into the Indian Ocean. Characterized by a dry, hot conditions, and the location of Victoria Falls.

River	Location	Characteristics
Volga River	Russia	Longest river in Europe; originates in the Valdai Hills; flows southward through Russia; empties into the Caspian Sea; important for transportation, hydroelectric power, and irrigation; historically significant for its role in Russian history.
Danube River	Germany, Austria, Slovakia, Hungary, Croatia, Serbia, Romania, Bulgaria, Moldova, Ukraine	Second-longest river in Europe; originates in the Black Forest of Germany; flows eastward through Central and Eastern Europe; empties into the Black Sea; important for transportation, hydroelectric power, and cultural heritage.
Ural River	Russia, Kazakhstan	Originates in the Ural Mountains; flows southward through Russia and Kazakhstan; empties into the Caspian Sea; serves as part of the traditional boundary between Europe and Asia; important for water resources.
Thames	England	Flows through London; empties into the North Sea; historically significant for its role in English history, trade, and transportation.
Rhine	Switzerland, France, Germany, Netherlands	Coal river that flows northward through Western Europe; empties into the North Sea; important for transportation, industry, and cultural heritage.
Elbe	Czech Republic, Germany	Flows northwestward through Central Europe; empties into the North Sea; important for transportation and industry; experiences seasonal flooding.

River	Location	Characteristics
Columbia River	Canada, US (Washington, Oregon)	Originates in the Canadian Rockies; flows through the US Pacific Northwest; empties into the Pacific Ocean; important for hydroelectric power, irrigation, and salmon fisheries.
Colorado River	US (Colorado, Utah, Arizona, Nevada, California), Mexico	Originates in the Rocky Mountains; flows southwestward; empties into the Gulf of California; important for water resources in the arid Southwest; extensively dammed and diverted.
Rio Grande	US (Colorado, New Mexico, Texas), Mexico	Originates in the Rocky Mountains; flows southward; forms part of the border between the US and Mexico; empties into the Gulf of Mexico; important for irrigation and water resources.
Mississippi River	US (Central)	A major river system; drains a large portion of the central US; empties into the Gulf of Mexico; important for transportation, agriculture, and commerce; known for its delta.
Missouri River	US (Central)	The longest tributary of the Mississippi River; originates in the Rocky Mountains; flows eastward; joins the Mississippi River; important for agriculture, transportation, and water resources.
Ohio River	US (Eastern)	A major tributary of the Mississippi River; drains a large portion of the eastern US; important for transportation, industry, and water resources.
Mackenzie River	Canada	Longest river in Canada; flows northward; empties into the Arctic Ocean; drains a vast area of the Northwest Territories; important for transportation and natural resources.
Yukon River	Canada, US (Alaska)	Originates in British Columbia (Canada); flows westward through Yukon Territory (Canada) and Alaska (US); empties into the Bering Sea; important for transportation, fishing, and mining.

River	Location	Characteristics
Amazon River	Brazil, Peru, Colombia, Ecuador, Bolivia, Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana	Largest river in the world by volume of water discharged; originates in the Andes Mountains of Peru; flows eastward through the Amazon rainforest; empties into the Atlantic Ocean; known for its biodiversity and vast drainage basin.
Orinoco River	Venezuela, Colombia	Flows in a giant arc for more than 2,800 km before emptying into the Atlantic Ocean, it is the Amazon's next door neighbour. Significant for its water volume, as well as the sheer size of its basin.
Paraná River	Brazil, Paraguay, Argentina	Second-longest river in South America. Has huge hydroelectric resources, including Itaipu, one of the world's largest hydroelectric dams. The main source of drinking water for Asunción, Buenos Aires, and Montevideo. Is also important for shipping and fishing in the region.

River	Location	Characteristics
Murray River	Southeastern Australia	Longest river in Australia; part of the Murray-Darling river system; originates in the Australian Alps; flows westward; discharges its water into the Southern Ocean; vital for agriculture, irrigation, and water supply.
Darling River	Southeastern Australia	The longest tributary of the Murray River; originates in Queensland; flows southwestward; joins the Murray River; experiences highly variable flow; important for irrigation and agriculture.
Murrumbidgee River	Southeastern Australia	A major tributary of the Murray River and is found in the states of New South Wales and the Australian Capital Territory
Cooper Creek	Central Australia	An intermittent stream which flows through Queensland, South Australia and Western Australia into Lake Eyre. Characterized by its complex network of ephemeral rivers.

Lakes

Lake	Location	Characteristics
Caspian Sea	Russia, Iran, Azerbaijan, Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan	Largest lake in the world (by surface area); saline lake; located at the border of Europe and Asia; rich in oil and gas resources; important for its biodiversity and sturgeon population.
Aral Sea	Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan	Shrinking lake; located in Central Asia; previously one of the largest lakes in the world; severely affected by water diversion for irrigation; an environmental disaster.
Lake Baikal	Russia (Siberia)	Deepest lake in the world; contains approximately 20% of the world's unfrozen freshwater; a UNESCO World Heritage Site; rich in biodiversity and endemic species.
Lake Balkhash	Kazakhstan	Characterized as part freshwater and part saltwater. Lies in an endorheic (closed) basin. The southern part of the lake is deeper and the water is saline, but the northern portion of the lake is shallow with fresh water.
Lake Toba	Indonesia	Supervolcano caldera; one of the largest volcanic lakes in the world; formed by a massive volcanic eruption; scenic beauty; important for tourism.
Tonle Sap	Cambodia	Largest freshwater lake in Southeast Asia; connects to the Mekong River; experiences seasonal flooding; important for fisheries and agriculture; a rich source of biodiversity.
Lake Van	Turkey	largest lake in Turkey and the largest soda lake in the world.

Lake	Location	Characteristics
Lake Ladoga	Russia	Largest lake entirely within Europe; located in northwestern Russia; important for water resources and transportation.
Lake Onega	Russia	Second-largest lake in Europe; located in northwestern Russia; characterized by numerous islands and bays; connected to Lake Ladoga by the Svir River.

Lake	Location	Characteristics
Lake Victoria	Tanzania, Uganda, Kenya	Largest lake in Africa (by surface area); the source of the White Nile River; important for fisheries, transportation, and water resources; experiences environmental challenges such as pollution and overfishing.
Lake Volta	Ghana	One of the largest man-made lakes in the world; formed by the Akosombo Dam on the Volta River; important for hydroelectric power, transportation, and fisheries.
Lake Chad	Chad, Cameroon, Niger, Nigeria	A shallow lake with a fluctuating shoreline; historically important for its water resources and biodiversity; faces challenges due to climate change and water diversion.
Lake Tanganyika	Tanzania, DRC, Burundi, Zambia	One of the deepest and longest lakes in the world; rich in biodiversity and endemic species; important for fisheries and transportation.
Lake Malawi (Nyasa)	Malawi, Tanzania, Mozambique	Third largest and second deepest lake in Africa. Characterized by it's extreme biodiversity including many native fish.

Lake	Location	Characteristics
Lake Superior	Canada, US	Largest of the Great Lakes (by surface area); deepest of the Great Lakes; important for transportation and shipping; known for its cold water and rugged shoreline.
Lake Michigan	US (entirely)	Only one of the Great Lakes entirely within the United States; important for recreation, shipping, and water resources; shoreline features sandy beaches and dunes.
Lake Huron	Canada, US	Second-largest of the Great Lakes (by surface area); known for its numerous islands and bays; important for recreation, shipping, and water resources.
Lake Erie	Canada, US	Shallowest of the Great Lakes; experiences algal blooms and water quality challenges; important for fishing, recreation, and transportation.
Lake Ontario	Canada, US	Smallest of the Great Lakes (by surface area); located downstream from the other Great Lakes; receives water from Niagara Falls; important for shipping and water resources.
Great Bear Lake	Canada (Northwest Territories)	Largest lake entirely within Canada; located in the Arctic region; characterized by cold water and remote wilderness; important for its natural resources and traditional indigenous use.
Great Slave Lake	Canada (Northwest Territories)	Second-largest lake entirely within Canada; known for its depth and size; located in the Arctic region; important for transportation and mining.
Lake Athabasca	Canada (Alberta, Saskatchewan)	A large lake straddling the border of Alberta and Saskatchewan; known for its scenic beauty and uranium mining activity in the region.
Reindeer Lake	Canada (Manitoba, Saskatchewan)	A large lake on the border between Manitoba and Saskatchewan; characterized by forests and wilderness; important for fishing and recreation.
Lake Winnipeg	Canada (Manitoba)	A large lake in Manitoba; characterized by shallow water and muddy bottom; important for commercial fishing and recreation.

Lake	Location	Characteristics
Lake Maracaibo	Venezuela	Largest lake in South America; a brackish lagoon connected to the Gulf of Venezuela; important for its oil reserves, fishing, and transportation; experiences environmental challenges.
Lake Titicaca	Peru and Bolivia	Highest navigable lake in the world; located in the Andes Mountains; important for its cultural significance and traditional way of life for indigenous communities; sustains a unique ecosystem.
Lake Poopó	Bolivia	Shallow, saline lake in the Altiplano; has experienced significant shrinkage due to climate change and water diversion; important for local communities; highly sensitive ecosystem.

Lake	Location	Characteristics
Lake Eyre	South Australia	Largest lake in Australia (when full); a salt lake; often dry or nearly dry; experiences infrequent flooding; important for its unique ecosystems.