Learning and Motivation

Learning: Definition

• NCERT Definition: Any relatively permanent change in behavior or behavioral potential produced by practice and experience is called learning.

• Calvin's Definition: Learning is a modification in a ready-made behavior due to experience.

• Skinner's Definition: Learning is the process of progressive behavior adaptation.

Features of Learning

• Change in Behavior: Learning leads to a change in behavior.
• Relatively Stable: These changes are relatively stable (not always permanent).
• Internal & External Changes: Changes can be both internal and external.
• Creative Synthesis: Learning is a creative synthesis of knowledge and experience.

Styles of Learning

• Styles are methods used by learners to make learning easier and more interesting.

Learning Styles derived from:

1. Perceptual Modality:

• Preference for receiving information.
• Biologically based reaction to the physical environment
• Examples: Visual, Auditory, Tactile learners.

2. Information Processing:

• How we think, solve problems, and remember information.
• Serial vs. Simultaneous processing.
• Active or reflective processing.

3. Personality Pattern:

• Preferred way of organizing, perceiving, and retaining information.
• Focuses on how personality affects interaction with the environment and individual responses.

Learning Styles (Anderson):

Feature	Relational Style (Arts)	Analytical Style (Science)
Learning Approach	Learns whole unit of information	Learns information in small chunks
Thinking way	Intuitive thinking	Sequential and structured thinking
Content Preference	Human and Social content	Inanimate and Impersonal content
Memory Strength	Verbal information	Abstract ideas
Task Orientation	Non-Academic task-oriented	Academic task-oriented
Influence of Opinion	Influenced by authority opinion	Not affected by opinions of others
Persistence	Withdraws from non-stimulating tasks	Persists in non-stimulating tasks
School Style Match	Conflicts with traditional school style	Matches mostly with school style

Kolb's Learning Styles:

• Four Styles based on a diagram with axes of Feeling, Watching, Thinking, and Doing.

	Active Experimentation (Doing)	Reflective Observation (Watching)
Concrete Experience (Feeling)	Accommodating (Feeling and Doing) Intuition-based, Takes initiative and depends on trial and error rather than logic. Uses analysis from others and Attracted to New Challenges and is the Most common in general public. Marketing, entrepreneurship	Diverging (Feeling and Watching) Prefers watching over doing, Imagines solutions, Works in groups, Listens to ideas of others. Artist , Writer , Musician
Abstract Conceptualization (Thinking)	Converging (Thinking and Doing) Interested in practical solutions, Prioritizes technical tasks. Engineer, Physician, Accountant	Assimilating (Thinking and Watching) Concise, Logical approach, Prioritizes ideas and concepts. Scientist, Professor

Memory

• Definition: Ability to retain or recall information.
• Psychological process of retaining and recalling information over a period of time.
• Three Independent Stages:
  • Encoding: Extracting meaning from information.
  • Storage: Storing the encoded information for later use.
  • Retrieval: Bringing stored information to awareness when needed.

Memory Stages: Detailed

• Encoding:

  • Information is received and registered.
  • Extract meaning so the memory system can reuse it.

• Storage:

  • Storing the encoded information so it can be used later.
  • Retaining and holding information over a period of time.
  • Completes the consolidation process of memory.

• Retrieval:

  • Bringing stored information to awareness.
  • Used for performing various cognitive tasks.

Models of Memory

1. Stage Model of Memory (Atkinson & Shiffrin):

Feature	Sensory Memory	Short-Term Memory (STM)	Long-Term Memory (LTM) (Secondary Memory)
Function	Initial registration of sensory input	Temporary storage and manipulation of information	Permanent storage of information
Duration	Less than 1 second	Less than 30 seconds	Lifetime
Capacity	Large	Limited (Information is lost if not practiced) Can be increased through chunking - Miller	Unlimited
Encoding	Sensory-specific (visual, auditory, etc.)	Primarily acoustic (sound-based)	Semantic (meaning-based), visual, auditory, etc.
Information Source	Direct sensory input	Attended information from sensory memory	Rehearsed/Elaborated information from STM
Key Processes	Registration	Attention, rehearsal, chunking	Encoding (elaboration, organization), retrieval
Replica of Stimulus	Exact replica	Not exact; some processing occurs	Not exact; highly processed and organized

Control Processes of Memory (Atkinson & Shiffrin)

• Selective Attention: Decides which information will travel from Sensory Memory to Short Term Memory.
• Maintenance Rehearsal (and Chunking): Retains information in Short Term Memory for a longer time through repetition and through breaking into chunks of smaller sizes to better recall.
• Elaborative Rehearsal: Moves information from Short Term Memory to Long Term Memory and deep thinking and memorizing.

2. Working Memory Model (Tulving)

• Working Memory Model divide long-term memory into two components:
  • Explicit Memory (Declarative Memory ): Name , Fact, Event
    • Episodic: Memory of personal experiences (e.g., being scolded by mother, first day of school).
    • Semantic: General factual information (e.g., 2 + 4 = 6, Prime Minister of India).
  • Implicit Memory (Procedural Memory): Processes
    • Memory of learned skills (e.g., cycling, making tea).

3. Bartlett Model of Memory:

• Memory is an active process that changes according to one's prejudices, experiences, and requirements.
• Schema: Organization of past experiences and knowledge that influences how incoming information is interpreted, stored, and retrieved.

4. Craik & Lockhart's Levels of Processing Theory:

• Two levels of processing determine memory retention:
  • Shallow Processing:
    • Attention to physical characteristics.
    • Structural and phonological analysis.
    • Short-term retention.
  • Deep Processing:
    • Interpretation at a deeper level.
    • Semantic and elaborative analysis.
    • Long-term retention.

Forgetting

• Definition: The process of losing any previously learned experience or retained information due to some reason.
• Ebbinghaus's Forgetting Curve: The amount of retention decreases as the time gap between learning and retention increases.
• Equation: Amount Retained is inversely proportional to Time since learning.
• Initially, there is a sharp decline in memory, but the rate of decline gradually slows down over time.

Theories and Factors of Forgetting

• Decay or Disuse Principle (Ebbinghaus): Memory traces formed during initial memory storage disappear over time due to lack of practice or use.
• Theory of Interference: Associations established between different items interfere with each other during retrieval.
  • Proactive Interference: Previously learned information interferes with the recall of new information.
  • Retroactive Interference: New information interferes with the recall of old information.
• Encoding Failure: Information is not properly encoded, making it difficult to retrieve.
• Consolidation Failure: Encoded information is not consolidated, leading to failure of long-term memory formation.
• Retrieval Failure (Tulving): The failure to use information stored in long-term memory in a timely manner due to the absence of retrieval cues. Retrieval cues helps us to retrieve stored information from our Long-Term-Memory.
• Motivated Forgetting (Freud): Forgetting information that we want to forget due to anxiety or guilt (e.g., traumatic experiences like eve-teasing).

Enhancing Memory

• Techniques for improving memory.
• Mnemonic Devices: Formal strategies used to enhance retention of information.
• Examples:
  • Using Images: Visual aids to help to remember information for longer.
    • Keyword Method - memorised by learning keywords
    • Method of Loci - info organised in the form of image
  • Using Organization:
    • Chunking: Dividing information into smaller units and better memorizing (eg. Mobile Number ) .
    • First-Letter Technique: Using the first letter of each word to create a memory aid (e.g., VIBGYOR).
  • Engaging in Deep-Level Processing:
    • Given by Craik and Lockhart.
    • Processing information at a deeper, semantic level.
    • Ask questions about meaning and relations.
  • Minimizing Interference: Avoiding learning too much similar information at once.
  • Moving Enough Retrieval Cues: Using cues to prompt memory retrieval.
  • PQRST Method : by Thomas and Robinson
    • Preview - Cursory look at info
    • Question - Raising Questions from lesson
    • Read - start reading and look for answer
    • Self- Recitation -
    • Test - Memorise by writing

Assessment of Motivation

• Motivation is the drive or desire to pursue and achieve goals.

• It involves internal and external factors that stimulate a person's interest, enthusiasm and persistence in pursuing a particular course of actions.

• Assessment of motivation: An attempt to assess the motivational elements or factors of a person.

• Methods of Motivation Assessment:

  • Questionnaire Method: Using questionnaires with questions to assess motivation levels (e.g., MMPI, 16PFQ).
  • Projective Techniques: Using random or unstructured materials to assess motivation based on the individual's responses.
  • Analysis of Historical Events: Obtaining information about social motives from newspapers and historical events.
  • Situational Test: Presenting individuals with a situation and assessing their reactions.
  • Measurement of Activity Level: Assessing motivation based on the intensity of an individual's responses and expressions.
  • Selection Method: Assessing motivation based on the choices individuals make among available options.
  • Interference Method: Assessing motivation by observing an individual's persistence in completing a task despite repeated failures.