Personality

Definition of Personality (According to Various Sources)

1. NCERT Definition

• Unique and relatively stable qualities that characterises a person's behaviour across different situations over a period of time.

2. Gordon Allport's Definition

• "Personality is a dynamic organization within the individual of those psycho-physical systems that determine his unique adjustment to the environment."

3. Eysenck's Definition

• Key Concept: Sum total of potential behavior patterns.
• Characterizes personality as the sum total of actual or potential behavior patterns.

4. Raymond Cattell's Definition

• Key Concept: Predictability of Behavior.
• Personality is that on the basis of which the behavior of a person can be predicted in a given situation.

Characteristics of Personality

• Dual Components: Has both physical and psychological components.
• Uniqueness: Expression in terms of behavior is fairly unique in a given individual.
• Stability: Relatively stable.
• Dynamism: Can be dynamic as some features change due to internal or external situational demands.

Determinants of Personality

• Factors that shape personality:

  • Genetics: Inherent traits.
  • Environment:
    • Upbringing, Culture, Family dynamics, Socio-economic status.
  • Psychological Factors:
    • Cognitive Processes, Emotional Regulation.
  • Social Interaction:
    • Peer groups, Interpersonal Relationships.
  • Biological Factors:
    • Brain structure, Hormonal balance.
  • Life Experiences:
    • Trauma, Stress, Significant Life Events (e.g., accidents).
  • Cultural Influences:
    • Cultural values, Beliefs, Societal expectations.

• Conclusion (for essay answers):

  • Understanding these determinants provides insights into the complexities of personality and how it evolves over time.

Approaches to Studying Personality

• Two primary approaches: Type and Trait.
• Type Approach: Broad level classification.
• Trait Approach: Specific, more focused on certain characteristics.

Type Approach: Key Types and Philosophies

• Goal: Understand personality by examining broad patterns in behavior.

1. Hippocrates

• Based on fluids present in the body.

Temperament	Hindi Meaning	Humor	Characteristics
Sanguine	उत्साही (Enthusiastic)	Excess Blood	Active, Energetic, Optimistic
Choleric	कोपशील (Irritable)	Excess Yellow Bile	Extroverted, Restless, Irritated
Melancholic	विवादी (Sad)	Excess Black Bile	Introverted, Analytical, Thoughtful
Phlegmatic	श्लेष्मिक (Sluggish)	Excess Phlegm	Calm, Relaxed, Lazy

2. Indian Philosophy (Charak Samhita)

• Based on three 'Gunas' or qualities.

Guna	Meaning	Characteristics
Satva	Goodness	Truthfulness, Cleanliness, Discipline, Detachment, Dutifulness
Rajas	Passion	Intensive activity, Desire, Dissatisfaction, Materialistic, Jealousy
Tamas	Darkness	Arrogance, Anger, Laziness, Depression, Helplessness

• Important Note: All qualities are present in every person, but the dominant 'Guna' determines personality.

3. Sheldon

Body Type	Physical Appearance	Temperament
Endomorph	Round, Fat, Soft	Sociable, Relaxed
Mesomorph	Muscular, Strong	Courageous, Assertive, Energetic
Ectomorph	Thin, Tall, Fragile	Artistic, Introverted, Frail

4. Carl Jung (Also Spelled "Jung")

• Based on Introversion and Extroversion.

Trait	Extrovert	Introvert
Social Behavior	Sociable, Outgoing	Prefers solitude, Reserved
Stress Handling	Manages stress well	Avoids stress, Withdraws
Work Preference	People-oriented occupations	Independent or solitary work
Emotional Response	Engages in social conflicts	Withdraws during emotional conflict

5. Friedman & Rosenman

• Based on Psycho-Social Risk Factors.
• Originally two types (A and B), later extended by Morris (C and D).

Trait	Type A	Type B	Type C (Morris)	Type D (Morris)
Motivation	Highly motivated, Competitive	Relaxed, Not easily pressured	Cooperative, Assertive, Thoughtful	Pessimistic, Low motivation
Stress Handling	Poor, Easily stressed	Handles stress well	Bottles up emotions	Poor, Prone to anxiety
Social Behavior	Outgoing, Ambitious	Easygoing, Sociable	Reserved, Patient, Conflict-avoidant	Socially inhibited, Withdrawn
Emotional Expression	Expressive, but impatient	Balanced, Emotionally stable	Suppresses negative emotions	Avoids expressing emotions
Work Style	Workaholic, Perfectionist	Steady, Enjoys work-life balance	Dedicated, Overly self-sacrificing	Fearful, Avoids leadership roles
Health Risks	High risk of heart disease, Hypertension	Low risk of stress-related issues	Prone to cancer	Prone to depression, Cardiovascular issues

Trait Approach

• Goal: Discover building blocks of personality - specific psychological attributes.
• Focuses on differences between individuals.
• These traits should be relatively stable over time.

Characteristics

• Stability: Relatively stable over time.
• Consistency: Consistent across situations.
• Strength Variation: Strength and combination of traits vary across individuals.
• Individual Differences: Leads to individual differences in personality.

1. Allport's Trait Theory

• Categorizes traits into three groups:

Trait Type	Definition	Characteristics	Example
Cardinal Traits	Dominating traits that define a person's life goal	Highly generalized, Pervasive, Associated with a person's name	Gandhi’s Non-Violence
Central Traits	General traits that form the core personality	Less pervasive, Used in testimonials or job recommendations	Honesty, Altruism
Secondary Traits	Traits that appear only in specific situations	Least generative, Context-dependent	Liking ethnic clothes, Nervousness before public speaking

2. Raymond Cattell's Classification

• 16 Primary Factor Questionnaire (16PFQ)
• Divides personality factors into:

Characteristic	Source Traits	Surface Traits
Definition	Core traits that are stable and fundamental	Observable traits influenced by Source Traits
Nature	More stable, Deep-rooted	More changeable, Visible in behavior
Function	Act as building blocks of personality	Result from interaction of Source Traits
Example	Emotional Stability	Honesty, Sociability

3. Eysenck's Trait Theory

• Based on biological/genetic factors.
• Two broad dimensions (later expanded to three):
  • Extroversion vs. Introversion: Degree to which people are socially outgoing or withdrawn
    • Extroverts: Gregarious, Active, Impulsive.
    • Introverts: Passive, Quiet, Cautious.
  • Neuroticism vs. Emotional Stability: Degree to which people have control over their feelings
    • Neurotic: Anxious, Moody, Over-sensitive, Lacks Control.
    • Emotionally Stable: Calm, Composed, Reliable, Self-controlled.
  • Psychoticism vs. Socialization: Interact with other two dimensions
    • Psychoticism (High): Hostile, Egocentric, Anti-social.
    • Socialization (High): Cooperative, Altruistic, Empathetic.

4. Five-Factor Model (Big Five)

• Developed by Paul Costa and Robert McCrae.
• Five broad dimensions: (OCEAN)

Trait	High Score Characteristics	Low Score Characteristics
Openness to Experience	Imaginative, Curious, Interested in culture	Rigid, Practical
Conscientiousness	Achievement-oriented, Dependable, Hard-working, Self-controlled	Impulsive
Extraversion	Sociable, Assertive, Outgoing, Fun-loving	Shy
Agreeableness	Helpful, Cooperative, Friendly, Caring	Hostile, Self-centered
Neuroticism	Emotionally unstable, Anxious, Worried, Irritable	Well-adjusted, Stable

• Conclusion:
  • The Five-Factor Model is useful in understanding personality profiles across cultures and is considered a promising empirical approach to the study of personality.

Assessment of Personality

• Definition: Formal effort to understand personality, predict behavior with minimum error and maximum accuracy.
• Three Basic Divisions:
  • Self-Report Measures
  • Projective Techniques
  • Behavioral Analysis

Comparison: Self-Report vs. Projective Techniques

Feature	Self-Report Measures	Projective Techniques
Nature	Direct Personality Test	Indirect Test
Reliability	Less Reliable	More Reliable
Subjectivity	Subjective	Objective

Self-Report Measures

• Involve direct questions answered by the individual.
• Examples:
  • MMPI (Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory)
  • 16PFQ (Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire)
  • Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ)

1. MMPI (Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory)

• Developed by Hathaway and McKinley (1943).
• Tool for psychiatric diagnosis.
• 567 questions (True/False), divided into 10 sub-scales.
• Used in diagnosing psychological abnormalities (e.g., Depression, Social Introversion).
• Indian adaptation: Jodhpur Multiphasic Personality Inventory (JMPI) by Malik and Joshi .

2. 16PFQ (Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire)

• Developed by Raymond Cattell.
• 164 statements.
• Useful for career guidance and vocational exploration for students and adults.

3. Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ)

• Developed by Hans Eysenck and Sybil Eysenck (1975).
• Based on 32 traits.
• 57 questions.
• Assess the two dimensions of personality
• Revised version (EPQR) with full (100 questions) and short (48 questions) versions in 1985.

Problems with Self-Report Measures

• Can be unreliable; answers may be influenced by social desirability.

Projective Techniques

• Access unconscious motives and feelings.
• Examples:
  • Rorschach Inkblot Test
  • Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
  • Sentence Completion Test
  • Rosenzweig Picture-Frustration Study
  • Draw-a-Person Test

1. Rorschach Inkblot Test

• 10 inkblot cards (5 Black & White, 2 Red, 3 Colourful).
• Subject responds to the images on the cards.
• Two phases:
  • Performance Proper: What the subject sees in each card.
  • Inquiry: Where, how, and why the subject gave a particular response.

2. Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

• Developed by Christiana Morgan and Henry Murray (1930s).
• 31 cards (30 picture cards, 1 blank).
• Subject creates a short story based on each picture.
• Assesses personality based on the story content.
• Apperception: How new experiences are assimilated and transformed by residues of past experiences.
• Analysis focuses on:
  • Hero (protagonist)
  • Needs(28 needs of the hero).
  • Press (30 environmental forces).
  • Thema (interaction between hero and press).
  • Outcome (of the story).
• Indian version developed by Uma Chaudhari.

3. Sentence Completion Test

• Incomplete sentences are presented; subject completes them.
• Completed sentences are used to assess personality.
• Considered a semi-projective method.

4. Rosenzweig Picture-Frustration Study

• 24 cartoon pictures depicting a frustrating situation.
• Subject describes the response of the frustrated person.
• Provides information about how people express aggression in frustrating situations.
• Indian version developed by Uday Pareek.

5. Draw-a-Person Test

• Subject draws a person and write story about it.
• Certain characteristics of the drawing (e.g., large hands, big head) are interpreted as indicators of specific personality traits.

Behavioral Analysis Techniques

• Analyzes a person's behavior in different situations.
• Examples:
  • Interview
  • Observation
  • Situation Test (SRT - Situation Reaction Test)
  • Nomination

1. Interview

• Structured (fixed questions) - to develop an impression potential to reveal subject's personality
• Unstructured (open-ended questions) - to make objective comparison of subject's personality

2. Observation

• A trained observer notes the individual's behavior, gestures, posture, body language.

3. Situation Test (Situation Reaction Test - SRT)

• The person is placed in a specific situation, and their behavior is studied.

4. Nomination

• Peer assessment: People who know the individual well are asked to describe their personality or choose them for specific tasks.

Nomothetic vs. Idiographic Approaches

Feature	Nomothetic Approach	Idiographic Approach
Meaning	"Custom" or "Law"	"One's Own," "Private"
Focus	Macro-centric (Group)	Micro-centric (Individual)
Data Type	Quantitative	Qualitative
Examples	EPQ, 16PFQ	Case Studies, Unstructured Interviews

• Nomothetic: Studies groups to identify general laws of behavior.
• Idiographic: Focuses on the uniqueness of an individual.