Dimensions of Ethics (नीतिशास्त्र के आयाम)

Two Main Bases for Division:

1. On the Basis of Branches:

   • Normative Ethics (नियम कीय नीतिशास्त्र)
   • Meta-Ethics (अधि नीति शास्त्र)
   • Applied Ethics (व्यवहारिक नीतिशास्त्र)

2. On the Basis of Modern Ideologies:

   • Marxist (Karl Marx's Philosophy)
   • Feminist
   • Black Ethics (Black Skin Color - US Context)
   • Freudian (Sigmund Freud's Philosophy)

Detailed Breakdown (Branches - Most Important):

Normative Ethics (नियम कीय नीतिशास्त्र) - MOST IMPORTANT

• Divisions:
  • Deontological Ethics / Duty Ethics: (परिणाम निरपेक्षता)
    • Emphasis on duty, not consequences. Act is moral if done out of duty, regardless of outcome.
  • Teleological Ethics / Consequentialism: (परिणाम सापेक्षता)
    • Focus on the consequences of an action. The morality of an act is determined by its outcome.
  • Virtue Ethics: (सद्गुण नीति शास्त्र)
    • Focus on character. Moral actions are those that a virtuous person would do. Look at lives and values of virtuous people.

Key Thinkers/Concepts within Normative Ethics

• Deontological:
  • Immanuel Kant: Emphasis on duty. (Kant = Duty)
  • Bhagavad Gita: कर्मण्य वाद वास्तु - Focus on action without attachment to results. Separate chapter on this.
  • Intuitionism: Intrinsic moral knowledge. People inherently know what is right and wrong. Act according to your intuition.
• Teleological:
  • Egoism (स्वार्थ वाद): Self-interest is the basis of morality. Humans are inherently selfish.
  • Hedonism (सुखवादी): Pleasure is the ultimate good. Seek pleasure and avoid pain. (Charvaka Philosophy - "Yavat Jivet Sukham Jivet" - live happily as long as you live)
  • Utilitarianism (उपयोगितावाद): Maximize happiness for the greatest number of people.
  • Evolutionism: Moral values evolve over time, becoming better.
  • Perfectionism(आत्मपूर्णतावाद):
• Virtue Ethics:
  • Socrates
  • Plato
  • Aristotle
  • So the important ones here are Socrates, Plato and Aristotle.
  • Mention of Sophists (less important) - existed before Socrates.
  • Confucius & Taoism (Chinese thinkers) - mentioned but deemed less important for this syllabus; just remember the names.

Meta-Ethics (अधि नीति शास्त्र)

• Analytic study of ethical issues.
• Related to the following topics in the syllabus: Duty, Good, Virtue, "Rit" (रित), "Rin" (ऋण).

Applied Ethics (व्यवहारिक नीतिशास्त्र)

• Application of moral principles to specific fields.
• Examples: Medical Ethics, Sports Ethics, Business Ethics, Administrative Ethics.
• Moral rules are general, but in the application in each of these fields are very specific.
• Example of Medical Ethics: Hospital falsely prolonging a deceased patient's life on paper to increase billing is unethical.
• Environmental Ethics: Moral evaluation of the relationship between humans and the environment.

Modern Ideologies

Marxist Ethics (Karl Marx)

• Objective: Establish equality in society.
• The "means" are secondary to the "ends."
• Core Tenets:
  • Society divided into two classes: Capitalists (Bourgeoisie) and Laborers (Proletariat).
  • Constant "Class Struggle" between them.
  • Current moral rules are defined by the Bourgeoisie to serve their interests.
  • Redefinition of moral rules is necessary. Violence for the sake of equality is justified.
  • Criticizes Religion, Nation, State, and Traditional Family Structure.
• Quote to Remember: "Religion is the opiate of the masses."

Feminist Ethics

• Society is patriarchal.
• Moral rules formulated by males to fulfill their interests.
• Re-define moral rules.
• "Mainstream" is actually "Male Stream."
• Government interference is necessary to prevent exploitation.
• Laws related to women are inspired by feminist ideology.

Black Ethics

• Moral rules formulated by "Whites" based on skin color.
• Morality is NOT based on skin color.
• "Black Lives Matter" movement.
• Black people should not feel inferior due to skin color.
• "Black is Beautiful."
• Oppose fairness creams.

Freudian Ethics (Sigmund Freud)

• Famous Psychologist: Human Personality (Psychoanalysis).
• Mind: Conscious, Unconscious, Subconscious.
• Iceberg Model:
  • Conscious (Tip of the iceberg)
  • Unconscious, Subconscious (Largely submerged)
• Personality: Id, Ego, Superego
  • Id: Basic urges (hunger, thirst, sexual desires). Pleasure principle. Instant gratification.
  • Superego: Developed social morality. How society wants you to behave. Morality principle.
  • Ego: Balances Id and Superego. Reality principle. The "Real" personality.
• Example: Desire to go to Goa.
  • Id: Go to Goa, no problem!
  • Superego: No, exam! Cannot go.
  • Ego: Maybe a trip nearby, not too far.

Virtue Ethics: The Sophists

Overview

• Origin: Greek teachers.
• Term origin: From the Greek word "Sophos," meaning teacher.
• Teaching Focus: Practical life skills for the youth of Greece.
• Key Belief: Capacities, abilities, desires, and needs are different for every individual.
• Moral Rules: Common moral rules cannot be universally imposed. Moral rules should be subjective.
• Emphasis on: Subjectivity, relativity, skepticism in ethics.

Prominent Sophist Thinkers

1. Protagoras

• Famous Quote: "Man is the measure of all things." (Meaning: Humanity should be at the center of all considerations).

2. Prodicus

• Key Idea: Nothing is valuable in itself. Human beings make things valuable.
• Example: No social rule is inherently valuable; human beings give it value.

3. Thrasymachus

• Claim: Laws represent the desires/will of powerful people.
• Consequence: Observing the law, in itself, is an injustice. (Similar to some Marxist/Feminist arguments).

4. Gorgias

• Belief: All truth is subjective.
• Claim: No truth is objective. Each person has their own truth.

Socrates

Background

• Greek sculptor (following his father's profession).
• Used earnings to engage in philosophical discussions with others.
• Developed the "Dialectical Method" (Dwandaatmak Prakriya) for attaining knowledge.
• Critique of Sophists: Argued that subjective moral rules would prevent establishing social order. Common, objective moral rules are necessary.
• Emphasis on Virtue: equated virtue with knowledge, and self knowledge.
• Key Statement: "I know that I do not know."
• Importance of Self-Knowledge: Understanding one's own ignorance is the greatest knowledge.

Key Ideas & Statements

• Need for Common Morality: Social order requires objective moral rules.
• Importance of Virtue: Necessary for a fulfilling human life.
• **Virtue is Knowledge
• Self-Knowledge: Real knowledge comes from introspection, not factual knowledge.
• Distinction Between Right and Wrong: A person must clearly understand the difference.
• Behavior Reflects Knowledge: A knowledgeable person will not commit wrong acts. Unethical behavior indicates a lack of knowledge of right and wrong.
• Knowledge Starts From Ignorance: Recognizing one's ignorance is the starting point of knowledge.
• Dialectical Method: Attain Knowledge by questioning beliefs and traditions.
• Other Virtues as Forms of Knowledge: Wisdom, courage, temperance are forms of knowledge.
• Principle of Unity of Virtues: The concept of other virtues being a form of knowledge.
• Mental Happiness: More important than physical happiness.

Plato

Background

• Disciple of Socrates.
• Institution: The Academy (emphasised knowledge over education focused on practical skills).
• Famous Books: The Republic, _ Laws._
• Method: Moral philosophy is derived from his political philosophy.

Theory of Justice

• Four Cardinal Virtues:
  • Wisdom (Vivek)
  • Courage (Sahas)
  • Temperance (Sanyam)
  • Justice (Nyay)
• Justice is most important of the four.

Justice in an Individual

• Three Aspects of the Soul:
  • Reason
  • Spirit
  • Appetite
• Each aspect has a corresponding virtue:
  • Reason -> Wisdom
  • Spirit -> Courage
  • Appetite -> Temperance
• Purpose of Virtues:
  • Wisdom: Helps distinguish between right and wrong, and make right decisions.
  • Courage: Inspires a person to face difficult problems.
  • Temperance: Controls senses/desires.
• Achieving Justice: Requires balancing these three virtues. Act according to your dominant virtue.

Justice in Society/State

• Division of Society into Three Classes (similar to the Varna system in India):
  • Class 1: Wisdom (Philosopher Kings, those who formulate rules and laws – Administration/Politics)
  • Class 2: Courage (Warriors, those who provide defense and security – Military/Police)
  • Class 3: Temperance (Producers, those who handle production tasks – Agriculture/Business)
• Justice Prevails: When each class performs its assigned task and does not interfere with others.
• Key Statement: "That state is just whose king is a philosopher."
• Utopia: The ideal, perfectly just state.

Theory of Ideas (Pratyay ka Siddhant)

• Main Objective: To understand the real form of knowledge.
• Key Idea: The physical presence of things is not as important as the idea of the thing.
• Knowledge is about ideas and not physical objects.
• Things vs. Ideas:
  • Things: Unreal, tangible, mortal, ever-changing (Opinion only possible)
  • Ideas: Real, intangible, immortal, unchanging (Real knowledge possible)
• Commonality Among Things: The idea that connects them (e.g., different chairs share the "chair idea").
• World of Ideas: Imagined by Plato, accessible through reason and intellect (not senses).
• Idea of Good: Most important. Knowing the "Idea of Good" allows one to attain all virtues.

Aristotle

Background

• Disciple of Plato.
• Father of Biology, Father of Philosophy, Father of Reasoning.
• Alexander the Great (Sikandar) was his student.

Criticism of Plato

• Ideas and Existence: Ideas do not have an independent existence. They exist within things.
• World of Ideas: Plato's "World of Ideas" is just imagination.
• Number of Virtues: Number of Virtues is not limited to four.
• Innate vs. Developed Virtues: Virtues are not innate; they are built through life.
• Utopia: Is an imagination. Completely just State is impossible.

Key Ideas & Statements

• Disciple of Plato, considered "Father of Ethics."
• Book: Nicomachean Ethics (named after his father).
• Realist Thinker: Compared to Plato as an idealist.
• Ultimate Objective of Life: "Eudaimonia" (Pleasure/Happiness).
• Condition for Happiness: Healthy Soul
• Virtues: Can be learned not like plato divided society based on virtues.
• Two Categories of Virtue:
  • Intellectual Virtue: Achieved through study.
  • Moral Virtue: Achieved through practice.
• Criticism of Socrates: Knowledge is not always reflected in behavior. Practice is needed for good behavior.
• Path of Golden Mean: A middle path between extremes (similar to Buddhist philosophy). For Example Justice is the Golden Mean Between Indulgence and Renunciation. For Example courage is between being Cowardice and Barbarism.

Other Ideologies (Parallel to Plato/Aristotle)

1. The Cyrenaics

• Founder: Aristippus (disciple of Socrates).
• Location: Cyrene city of Greece.
• Key Idea: Hedonistic (focused on pleasure).
• Beliefs: Psychological Hedonism and Ethical Hedonism
  • Psychological Hedonism: Everyone is born selfish and seeks happiness.
  • Ethical Hedonism: Actions performed for happiness are ethical.
• Similarity: Similar to Charvaka philosophy in India.
• Emphasis on: Physical Happiness over Mental Happiness.

2. The Cynics

• Founder: Antisthenes
• Famous Thinker: Diogenes
• Key Idea: Opposed to Hedonism.
• Beliefs: Seeking happiness makes one a slave to desires. Better to be mad than a slave to desires.
• Importance of Moral Character:
  • Live in poverty/hardship.
  • Practice self-control.
  • Seek self-satisfaction.

3. The Epicureans

• Key Idea: Refined version of Cyrenaicism.
• Hedonistic: Believed in Psychological and Ethical Hedonism.
• Emphasis on: Mental Happiness is more important than physical happiness.
• Physical Happiness: Short-term, leads to pain.
• Mental Happiness: Long-term, leads to happiness.
• Attaining Mental Happiness:
  • Study arts, literature, music, philosophy.
  • Control desires.
  • Be free from fear.
• Types of Desires:
  • Essential Desires: Sleep, hunger, thirst (should be fulfilled).
  • Unnecessary Desires: Wealth, post, power (should be controlled).
• Types of Fears: Fear of God, Fear of Death (caused by superstition and ignorance).

4. Stoicism

• Founder: Zeno (philosophy named after his home, "Stoa").
• Prominent Thinkers: Seneca, Epictetus, Marcus Aurelius.
• Core Principles:
  • Accept fate.
  • Don't try to control everything.
  • Don't become too attached to things or people.
• Two Types of Activities:
  • Those in our control (focus on these).
  • Those not in our control (don't worry about these). (Similar to Bhagavad Gita).
• Imagination vs. Reality: Human beings suffer more in their imagination than in reality.
• Importance of Duty: Duty is necessary for a moral life (similar to Bhagavad Gita and Kant).

Teleological Ethics

1. Egoism (स्वार्थ वाद)

• Definition: Ethical acts are those that fulfill self-interest.

1.1. Thomas Hobbes

• Connection to Political Philosophy: Known for Social Contract Theory.
• Key Idea: Ethical actions fulfill self-interest. He accepted both Psychological and Ethical Egoism.
• Psychological Egoism:
  • Individuals are inherently selfish (by birth).
  • Goal: Fulfill their own self-interest.
• Ethical Egoism:
  • Self-interest is the basis for ethical action. Fulfilling self-interest makes an action ethical.
• Development of Morality:
  • Morality evolves; therefore, self-interest changes over time.
  • Low Morality = Narrow Definition of Self-Interest.
  • High Morality = Broader Definition of Self-Interest (e.g., parents prioritizing children's interests; philanthropists prioritizing society).
  • Soldiers prioritize the country's interests, then society's, then their own.
• Original Position:
  • Initially, morality is low due to conflicting interests and anarchy.
  • Original Position is State of Anarchy and Conflict. Important definition for exam.
• Resolving Conflict:
  • Create collective interests.
  • Social Contract is a way to define collective interests and resolve conflicts.
  • Social Contract leads to the establishment of a State.

2. Hedonism (सुखवादी)

• Definition: Ethical acts are those that result in happiness (सुख).
• "Good" is often translated to "Sukha" in Philosophy

2.1. Types of Hedonism

• Psychological Hedonism: Humans are inherently selfish and seek pleasure from birth. It is his duty to fulfill self-interest.
• Ethical Hedonism: Actions that fulfill self-interest and/or happiness are considered ethical.
• Egoistic Hedonism: Only actions that maximize one's own happiness are ethical.
  • Examples: Cyrenaics, Epicureans, Charvaka philosophy ("Yavat Jivet Sukham Jivet" - As long as you live, live happily).
• Altruistic Hedonism: Maximize happiness for the maximum number of people.
  • Thinkers: Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill (JS Mill).
• Gross/Crude Hedonism: Emphasizes quantitative differences in pleasure/happiness.
• Refined Hedonism: Emphasizes qualitative differences in pleasure/happiness.
  • JS Mill is a proponent.

3. Utilitarianism (उपयोगितावाद)

• Definition: Ethical actions are those that are useful/beneficial.
• "Those acts should be performed which are useful."

3.1. Types of Utilitarianism

• Idealistic Utilitarianism: Acts that help achieve an ideal (duty, knowledge, justice) are useful.
• Hedonistic Utilitarianism: Acts that provide happiness are useful.
• Act Utilitarianism: Individual actions are evaluated based on their utility/impact. Actions are Evaluated on the basis of Utility of Law.
• Rule Utilitarianism: Rules/Laws are evaluated based on whether they are useful and benefit the maximum number of people. Rules are evaluated.

3.2. Key Thinkers in Utilitarianism

• Jeremy Bentham
• John Stuart Mill (JS Mill)

3.2.1. Jeremy Bentham

• Background: Prominent English thinker.
• Key Idea: "Maximum Happiness for Maximum Number of People." Important, must include if Bentham's name is mentioned. He is often considered to have started Utilitarianism.
• Hedonistic Utilitarianism:
  • Accepted psychological, ethical, and altruistic hedonism.
• Contradiction:
  • Bentham identifies a contradiction in the idea that individuals are selfish from birth, so he does not explain why people act in the way they do.
• Four External Sanctions: These are sanctions to resolve contradictions and Bentham gave theory for external Sanctions
  1. Natural: Physical limitations necessitate cooperation.
  2. Social: Praise and criticism from society influence behavior.
  3. Political: Laws and punishments enforce societal norms.
  4. Religious: Concepts of heaven, hell, sin, etc., deter selfish behavior. The goal is to keep human afraid.
• Crude/Gross Hedonist: Emphasizes quantitative differences in happiness.
• Theory of Hedonistic Calculus (Donistic Calculus): A method for measuring happiness (seven factors).
  1. Proximity: How near is the happiness?
  2. Purity: Is the happiness unmixed with pain?
  3. Certainty: How certain is the happiness?
  4. Fecundity: Will the happiness lead to more happiness?
  5. Duration: How long will the happiness last?
  6. Extent: How many people will the happiness affect?
  7. Intensity: What is the intensity of the happiness?

3.2.2. John Stuart Mill (JS Mill)

• Utilitarian Thinker: A Hedonistic Utilitarian.
• Key Idea: Also "Maximum Happiness for Maximum Number of People." Include this if JS Mill's name is mentioned.
• Accepted: Psychological, ethical, and altruistic hedonism.
• **Contradiction & Internal Sanction:**JS Mill believed that sanctions existed when people watched others in pain, so the same contradictions exist in this thought process.
• Quality vs. Quantity: Believed in both qualitative and quantitative differences in happiness (a "refined" hedonist).
• "On Liberty" (Book):
  • Liberty of Thought and Expression: Should be absolute. No government interference.
  • Liberty of Actions: Divided into two.
    • Self-Regarding Actions (e.g., eating, bathing): Absolute Liberty.
    • Other-Regarding Actions (e.g., playing loud music): State interference is sometimes necessary.
  • *Important to remember Mills' Ideas on Liberty.

3.3. Criticisms of Utilitarianism

• Happiness is subjective and difficult to define.
• Constantly thinking about happiness may prevent achieving it.
• "Maximum happiness for maximum number of people" does not protect the interests of minorities.
• Actions performed under pressure are not truly ethical.
• Happiness is difficult or impossible to measure.
• Mill's qualitative differences in happiness lack a clear explanation of what makes happiness "superior" or "inferior."
• Ethical Hedonism has a naturalistic fallacy. A person's natural tendancies cannot be ethical.

4. Evolutionism (विकासवाद)

• In terms of moral philosophy, believes that Physical Evolution has ended, but Moral Evolution will now take place.

4.1. Herbert Spencer

• Connection to Darwin: Applied Darwin's theory of biological evolution to morality.
• Key Idea: Moral rules evolve over time.
• "Survival of the Fittest" Applied to Morality: Only moral rules that are important for the needs, desires, and safety of human beings will survive.
• Ethical Acts: Those that are adaptive to changes in society, resulting in happiness.
• Types of Morality:
  • Relative Morality (Low Stage): Individuals see a conflict between individual and social interests; prioritize self-interest. State must enact laws. Morality is externally imposed.
  • Absolute Morality (High Stage): Individuals do not see a conflict between individual and social interests. Social interest is fulfilled by the individual. There is no external need to enforce morality. The Human beings work for the society.
• Do not criticize moral rules of the past, because the morality of the past was a necessity at the time.
• Moral rules of the future will be superior.
• Person Has the quality of egoism and altruism.
• Supports Individual liberty, but it should not impede the liberty of others.
• Distribution of resources should be on the basis of merit, but protection should be given to weaker sections.

4.2. Leslie Stephen

• Agrees with Spencer's ideas on evolution.
• Disagreements: Accepts the mechanical relationship between individual and society but gives importance to individual liberty.
• Stephen accepts the organic relationship between individual and society.
• Body parts can be sacrificed to protect the body, so the same goes to protecting the individuals of society. Society should be held to a higher importance.
• Criticizes absolute morality as an imaginary world.

4.3. Samuel Alexander

• Believes Morality is evolving continuously
• If there is a cut between Moral Rules, then the more rational Moral Rule with survive.
• The Level of Rationality of Individuals exists ahead of societies. Those Individuals are not accepted by the society.

5. Perfectionism (आत्म पूर्णता वाद)

5.1. Hegel

• Background: German philosopher, idealist, and rationalist.
• Key Idea: The fundamental element of the universe is an absolute idea. Absolute ideas are everywhere in the world. Even in matter, the Abslute Idea is present, but in an unexpressed form.
• Stages of Expression:
  • Matter (unexpressed) --> Vegetation (slightly expressed) --> Birds/Animals (more expressed) --> Human Beings (even more expressed) --> God (completely expressed)
• Three Stages of Morality:
  1. Initial Stage: Stage of Subjective consciousness. Individual Interest, Conflict to the social state. Prioritization to self-interest. State enaction of Laws.
  2. Stage of Self-Inspiration: Objective Consciousness. Society and Individual Interest are aligned.
  3. Final Stage: Absolute Consciousness. The individual and society becomes one. and the individual works for Social Interest Only.
• Theory of Dialectics: The Idea is to achieve perfection.
  • Thesis -> Antithesis -> Struggle -> Synthesis (This becomes the new thesis and continues)
• Hegel uses the theory of dialectics to show that States exist.
• Positive view of the State. Important Statement: "State is March of God upon Earth."
• He states that all roles should be followed.
• He Ignored the Citizen's Liberty

5.2. Bradley

• Perfectionist, similar to Hegel.
• Key Idea: My Station and Its Duties.
• State of Absolute Consciousness is perfectionists when a person obtains Self Knowledge.
• Bradley stated that an individual works for Social Interests, Self-Interest and does not see a difference.
• Identification for Social interest and small since Everyone contributes to it.

Existentialism, Deontology, and John Rawls' Theory of Justice

I. Existentialism

• Focuses on human existence.
• Logical and Virtue Ethics are already covered.

A. Soeren Kierkegaard

• Considered a founder of Existentialism (along with Nietzsche).
• A religious thinker who emphasized human existence.
• Critiques Materialism:
  • Argues humans seek happiness in material things.
  • This leads to a reduction in emotions and sensitivity.
  • Humans start to identify themselves with material things
• Three Stages of Life:
  1. Aesthetic Stage: Happiness gained from material possessions. This is temporary.
  2. Ethical Stage: Happiness through working for society and increased social prestige. This, too, is temporary.
  3. Religious Stage: Human becomes spiritual, surrounds themselves with God, and achieves long-term peace.
• Note: Stages can occur in parallel or as an evolution.

B. Jean-Paul Sartre

• Individualistic thinker emphasizing human existence.
• Importance in human existence
• Rejects the existence of God to protect the existence of human beings.
• Essence and Decisions: Human beings create their essence through decisions.
• "Man is condemned to be free." It's man's basic nature.
• Being vs. Becoming:
  • Being: A state where one is free to make their own decisions.
  • Becoming: A state of being a slave to external forces, unable to decide one's utility.
  • If a person doesn't take their own decisions, they move from "Being" to "Becoming."

II. Deontology (Duty Ethics)

• Emphasis on duty and moral obligations.
• Often referred to as Duty Ethics.

A. Bhagavad Gita

• A primary text of Duty Ethics. (To be covered later)

B. Immanuel Kant

• German philosopher known for rigorous and structured thinking.
• Emphasis on "Will": Actions should be evaluated based on the will behind them, not their consequences.
• Goodwill vs. Bad Will:
  • Goodwill: Inspired by a spirit of duty, is moral. Acts performed with goodwill are ethical.
  • Bad Will: Inspired by emotions, is unethical.
• Categorical Imperative:
  • Moral rules should be strictly followed without exception.
  • Moral rules are the end itself, not a means to a higher objective.
  • "Observance of duty is duty." ("Duty for duty's sake.")
• Hypothetical Imperative:
  • Moral rules are followed to achieve a higher objective (opposed by Kant).
• Four Formulas for Morality (to be used when formulating moral rules):
  1. Law of Universality: Moral rules must be universally applicable, without exceptions, regardless of place, time, or person.
  2. Law of Considering Man as an End: All actions and moral rules should treat humans as ends in themselves, not as means. Humanity should be respected.
  3. Law of Autonomy: Each individual is inherently free; therefore, moral rules shouldn't be externally imposed. Moral rules should be decided by the person themselves. (Rejection of state and law concepts).
  4. Law Maker of Kingdom of Ends: Integration of the above three laws.
• Two Aspects of Human Beings:
  1. Rational Aspect: Inspires one to follow the path of duty.
  2. Emotional Aspect: Deviates one from the path of duty.
  • To achieve morality, a person should strengthen the rational aspect and control the emotional aspect.
• Postulates/Pre-assumptions of Morality:
  1. Freedom of Will: Every person is free to make their own decisions and is responsible for them.
  2. Immortality of Soul: God and soul cannot be proven empirically (transcendental subjects). To establish morality, one must accept the immortality of the soul and rebirth. Life is limited, and absolute morality cannot be achieved in one lifetime.
  3. Existence of God: Cannot be proven through evidence, but God must be assumed to exist, because God gives pleasure, by which Good will transforms into absolute will.
• Critiques of Kant:
  • Completely ignores consequences.
  • Ethics are too strict and impractical.
  • Doesn't accept exceptions.
  • Doesn't give importance to emotions.
  • Accepts God and Soul, which cannot be proven.

III. Intuitionism (Antah Pragya Vaad)

• Ethical actions are those done as per one's intuition.
• Intuition is a kind of direct knowledge whose source is undefined.

A. Ralph Cudworth and Samuel Clarke

• Intuition is generated through pure reason, not experience or the senses.
• Intuition exists in all human beings, allowing them to make ethical decisions.
• Intuition is compared to mathematics (e.g., a triangle's angles always summing to 180 degrees).

B. Shaftesbury and Hutcheson

• Theory of Moral Sense: Accepts the role of emotions and experience.
• Moral sense develops like aesthetic sense.
• Continuous exposure to moral problems can sharpen one's moral sense.

C. Joseph Butler

• Accepts the role of both reason and emotion.
• Conscience:
  • Cognitive aspect helps in knowing right and wrong.

IV. John Rawls

• American political philosopher.
• Theory of Justice: Book written to critique existing theories of justice.
• Justice as Fairness: Justice is fundamentally about fairness.
• Problem: How to distribute goods like liberty, opportunity, and equality fairly.
• Critique of Utilitarianism: Interest of the minority is not protected, and the consent of all is not taken.
• Social Contract Theory:
  • To formulate a theory of justice, a process should be used where the consent of everyone is taken.
  • Help from Social Contract Theory (Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau) can be taken.
  • State came into existence through this theory.
  • Explains how rational individuals come together to form a society with agreed-upon rules.
• Original Position and Veil of Ignorance:
  • Original Position: All rational individuals gather in an imaginary place.
  • Veil of Ignorance: Each individual is placed behind a "veil" that conceals their status, capabilities, and future plans.
    • This ensures they create moral rules and a theory of justice that considers the equality, liberty, and protection of all, including the weakest.
    • Important Term: Veil of Ignorance.
• Society as a Chain: Society should protect the weaker link. (analogous to the weakest link in a chain).