India's Space Programme

India has a comprehensive and evolving space program, primarily driven by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO), which aims to leverage space science and technology for national development and socio-economic benefits, alongside pursuing scientific research and exploration.

History and Milestones of the Indian Space Programme

The Indian space program began in the 1960s.

• Early Beginnings (1960s-1970s):
  • In 1962, the Indian National Committee for Space Research (INCOSPAR) was established under the leadership of Dr. Vikram Sarabhai, who is known as the father of the Indian space program.
  • The Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station (TERLS) was established in Thiruvananthapuram in 1962.
  • India's first sounding rocket, "Nike-Apache," was launched from Thumba in November 1963, marking the program's inception.
  • ISRO was formed on August 15, 1969, replacing INCOSPAR.
  • The Space Commission was constituted, and the Department of Space (DoS) was established in 1972, with ISRO functioning under DoS.
  • Aryabhata, India's first satellite, was successfully launched in 1975 with the help of the erstwhile Soviet Union, marking India's entry into the space age.
  • The first experimental remote sensing satellite, Bhaskara-I, was launched in 1979 with USSR's help.
• Development Era (1980s-1990s):
  • In 1980, Rohini-1 became the first satellite to be placed in orbit by an Indian-made launch vehicle, SLV-3, making India the sixth country (or seventh, depending on source) to achieve indigenous satellite launch capability.
  • The INSAT (Indian National Satellite) series was initiated in 1983 (INSAT-1B was successful after INSAT-1A failed in 1982), revolutionizing telecommunications and broadcasting.
  • Rakesh Sharma became the first Indian astronaut in 1984, traveling to the Soviet Union's Salyut-7 space station.
  • The Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) debuted in 1994, becoming a reliable workhorse for launching satellites into polar orbits.
  • The IRS (Indian Remote Sensing) Satellite Series began with the launch of IRS-1A in 1988, aimed at remote sensing applications.
  • Cryogenic engine development in India began in 1994 with the "cryogenic upper stage program" at Mahendragiri, Tamil Nadu, leading to a successful indigenous test in 2014.
• Modern Advancements (2000s-Present):
  • The Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV) was developed and first launched in 2001.
  • CARTOSAT-1, a state-of-the-art remote sensing satellite, was launched in 2005.
  • Chandrayaan-1, India's first lunar probe, launched in 2008, discovered water molecules on the Moon's surface.
  • The Mars Orbiter Mission (Mangalyaan), launched in 2013, made India the first Asian nation and the first in the world to reach Martian orbit in its maiden attempt.
  • In 2017, ISRO set a world record by launching 104 satellites on a single PSLV-C37 rocket.
  • Chandrayaan-2 was launched in 2019, attempting a soft landing on the Moon, which partially failed, though the orbiter continues to function.
  • Chandrayaan-3 achieved a successful soft landing near the Moon's south pole on August 23, 2023, making India the first country to do so and the fourth to place a rover on the Moon.
  • Aditya-L1, India's first solar observatory mission, was launched on September 2, 2023, and successfully reached its orbit around the L1 Lagrangian point on January 6, 2024.
  • India has also set a goal to establish its own space station by 2035 and achieve crewed lunar landing by 2040.

Key Missions and Projects

India's space missions encompass lunar, Mars, solar, and human spaceflight programs, along with various satellite systems.

Lunar Missions (Chandrayaan Series)

• Chandrayaan-1 (2008): India's first lunar mission, launched by PSLV-C11. It successfully confirmed the presence of water molecules on the Moon and studied its mineral composition.
• Chandrayaan-2 (2019): Aimed for a soft landing near the Moon's south pole using GSLV Mk III (LVM3). While the Vikram lander's soft landing failed, the orbiter successfully continues to function and has provided extensive data on the lunar exosphere and water availability in polar regions.
• Chandrayaan-3 (2023): Achieved India's first successful soft landing on the Moon's south pole on August 23, 2023, making India the first country to do so. It consisted of the Vikram lander and Pragyan rover, which conducted surface experiments, discovering sulfur and other elements.
• Future Lunar Missions: India plans Chandrayaan-4 as a potential sample return mission, and is collaborating with NASA and JAXA on future lunar exploration, including the Lunar Polar Exploration Mission (LUPEX) by 2026 to confirm water ice at the south pole.

Mars Missions

• Mangalyaan (Mars Orbiter Mission - MOM) (2013): India's first interplanetary mission, successfully launched by PSLV-C25. It made India the first Asian nation and the first globally to reach Mars on its maiden attempt, and it was the most cost-effective interplanetary mission. The mission studied Mars' atmosphere, climate, and searched for methane.
• Mangalyaan-2 (MOM-2): A more advanced mission to Mars is planned for 2026-27, focusing on sub-surface structure, water, and potential signs of life.

Solar Missions

• Aditya-L1 (2023): India's first solar mission, launched by PSLV-C57 to study the Sun's corona, solar winds, and space weather from a halo orbit around the L1 Lagrangian point. It aims to understand solar flares and the Sun's magnetic field.
• Future Solar Exploration: Plans include Aditya-L2 and Aditya-L3 for deeper studies of the Sun.

Human Spaceflight Programme (Gaganyaan)

• Objective: To demonstrate human spaceflight capability by launching a crew of three members (including one woman) into a Low Earth Orbit (LEO) of 400 km for 3-7 days, ensuring their safe return to Earth. This mission will make India the fourth country after Russia, USA, and China to send humans to space.
• Launch Vehicle: Human Rated LVM-3 (GSLV Mk III).
• Phases: Two unmanned test flights will precede the manned mission, including the Vyommitra humanoid robot.
• Astronaut Training: Four Indian Air Force pilots, referred to as "Gaganauts," have been selected and received training in Russia. ISRO is also establishing a training center in Bengaluru.
• Significance: Gaganyaan will significantly boost India's space capabilities, fostering technological advancement and international collaboration.
• Future Plans: After Gaganyaan, India plans longer human space missions (6-7 days) and aims to establish its Indian Space Station ("Bharatiya Antariksh Station") by 2035. ISRO also plans crewed missions to the Moon and Mars in the future.

Venus Orbiter Mission (Shukrayaan)

• Objective: ISRO's Shukrayaan-1 is planned as India's first mission to Venus, expected to launch in 2025-26. It will be an orbiter mission to study Venus's atmosphere, surface, and interaction with the Sun, carrying a ground-penetrating radar and other payloads.

Other Scientific and Exploration Satellites

• AstroSat (2015): India's first dedicated multi-wavelength space observatory, launched into LEO, capable of observing celestial bodies in visible, UV, and X-ray regions. India is the fifth country to launch such an observatory.
• XPoSat (2024): India's first dedicated X-ray Polarimeter Satellite to study cosmic X-ray sources.
• NISAR (NASA-ISRO Synthetic Aperture Radar): A joint Earth observation mission between NASA and ISRO, expected to launch in 2024. It will map the entire globe in 12 days using L and S dual-band SAR, primarily for studying climate change, environmental phenomena, and natural hazards like earthquakes and tsunamis.

Indian Satellite Systems

India has developed diverse satellite systems for communication, earth observation, navigation, defense, and scientific research.

Communication Satellites

• These satellites facilitate television broadcasting, mobile and internet communication, telemedicine, tele-education, disaster management, and military communication.
• INSAT (Indian National Satellite System): India's first and largest communication satellite program, launched in 1983 with INSAT-1B. It monitors weather, provides DTH services, and supports telemedicine and tele-education.
• GSAT (Geostationary Satellite): A series of advanced communication satellites operated by ISRO, playing a crucial role in modern communication services including DTH, broadband internet, and defense communication.
  • EduSat (GSAT-3): Launched in 2004, it is an exclusive education satellite, the first of its kind globally, providing satellite-based distance education services.
  • GSAT-7 ("Rukmini"): Launched in 2013, dedicated to secure communication for the Indian Navy across the Indian Ocean Region.
  • GSAT-7A ("Angry Bird"): Launched in 2018, enhancing network-centric warfare capabilities for the Indian Air Force and Army.
  • GSAT-7B: An upcoming communication satellite (expected 2025) dedicated to the Indian Army for digital battlefield communication and drone operations.

Earth Observation Satellites (EOS) / Remote Sensing Satellites (IRS)

• Used for monitoring natural resources, land management, weather forecasting, disaster management, agriculture, and urban planning. Remote sensing involves collecting information from a distance.
• IRS Series: India's oldest and most successful Earth observation system, starting with Bhaskara-1 (1979) and IRS-1A (1988). Key satellites in this series include Oceansat, Cartosat, HySIS, and EMISAT. Since 2020, IRS satellites are unified under the EOS prefix.
  • Cartosat-1 is mainly intended for cartographic applications.
  • EOS-06 (November 2022) is an Earth observation satellite for oceanographic studies.
  • EOS-07 (2023) is a minisatellite for quick deployment of new technologies in Earth observation.

Navigation Satellites

• India has developed indigenous navigation systems to provide precise location and timing services for both military and civilian purposes, reducing dependence on foreign systems like GPS.
• IRNSS (Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System) / NavIC (Navigation with Indian Constellation): India's independent regional navigation system. It covers India and a region up to 1,500 km around its borders. The constellation consists of seven operational satellites (three in geostationary orbit and four in inclined geosynchronous orbit). It provides two services: Standard Positioning Service (SPS) for public and Restricted Service (RS) for authorized users.
• GAGAN (GPS Aided Geo Augmented Navigation): A satellite-based augmentation system jointly developed by ISRO and the Airport Authority of India (AAI) for high-accuracy satellite-based navigation in civil aviation and air traffic management over Indian airspace.

Defense & Surveillance Satellites

• These satellites support the Indian armed forces with secure communication, border surveillance, intelligence gathering, missile tracking, and strategic defense.
• Defense Communication Satellites: Include GSAT-7 ("Rukmini") for the Indian Navy and GSAT-7A ("Angry Bird") for the Indian Air Force and Army. GSAT-7B is upcoming for the Indian Army.
• Surveillance & Reconnaissance Satellites: Such as RISAT (Radar Imaging Satellite), which can monitor in all weather conditions and EMISAT, India's first electronic intelligence (ELINT) satellite developed jointly by DRDO and ISRO to track enemy radar and electronic communication. DRDO also develops Kautilya (SIGINT Satellite) for intercepting and analyzing enemy communications.
• Hyperspectral Imaging Satellite (HysIS): Provides precise spectral data for strategic surveillance.

Scientific & Exploration Satellites

• These satellites facilitate deep space exploration, astrophysics, astronomical research, and studies beyond Earth's planets. Key examples include the Chandrayaan series, Mangalyaan, Aditya-L1, and AstroSat.

Launch Vehicles

India has developed a range of indigenous launch vehicles to achieve self-reliance in space technology.

• Evolution of ISRO’s Launch Vehicles: India's launch vehicle development began in the 1960s with sounding rockets. This evolved through experimental vehicles to operational ones.
• Sounding Rockets: Used for probing upper atmospheric regions and testing new components. The first sounding rocket, Nike-Apache, was launched from Thumba in 1963.
• SLV (Satellite Launch Vehicle): India's first-generation launch vehicle, developed under the leadership of Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam. The SLV-3 successfully launched the Rohini-1 satellite in 1980, capable of placing a 40 kg payload into LEO.
• ASLV (Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle): A five-stage solid propellant vehicle designed to augment payload capacity to 150 kg for LEO, thrice that of SLV-3. Its development helped validate key technologies for future launch vehicles.
• PSLV (Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle): ISRO's most reliable and versatile workhorse rocket, used for deploying Earth observation and remote sensing satellites into Sun-Synchronous Polar Orbits (SSPO). It was the first Indian launch vehicle to use liquid stages.
  • Stages: Four-stage vehicle with alternating solid and liquid propulsion systems. It uses Hydroxyl-Terminated Polybutadiene (HTPB) as solid fuel and Unsymmetrical Dimethylhydrazine (UDMH) and Monomethylhydrazine (MMH) as liquid fuels with Nitrogen Tetroxide (N₂O₄) and Mixed Oxides of Nitrogen (MON) as oxidizers. The liquid second stage uses the Vikas Engine.
  • Payload Capacity: 1,750 kg to SSPO (600 km altitude).
  • Variants: PSLV-CA (Core Alone), PSLV-DL (two strap-ons), PSLV-QL (four strap-ons), and PSLV-XL (six strap-ons). PSLV-XL is used for major missions like Chandrayaan-1 and Mars Orbiter Mission.
  • Key Missions: Successfully launched Chandrayaan-1 (2008), Mars Orbiter Mission (2013), and set a world record by launching 104 satellites in a single mission (2017). It has also launched over 400 foreign satellites for more than 50 countries.
• GSLV (Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle): India's fourth-generation launch vehicle, designed to deploy heavier payloads (communication satellites) into Geosynchronous Transfer Orbits (GTO).
  • Stages: Three-stage vehicle with solid, liquid, and cryogenic stages. It uses four liquid strap-on boosters.
  • Cryogenic Technology: Mastery over indigenous cryogenic engine technology (using liquid hydrogen at -253ºC and liquid oxygen at -183ºC as fuel and oxidizer) was a significant milestone, reducing dependence on foreign services.
  • Variants (Mk-I, Mk-II, Mk-III): GSLV Mk-III (now known as LVM3) is the heaviest and most powerful, capable of placing 4-tonne class satellites into GTO and 8-tonne payloads into LEO.
  • Key Missions: Launched Chandrayaan-2 and Chandrayaan-3.
• SSLV (Small Satellite Launch Vehicle): ISRO's "baby rocket" is a three-stage launch vehicle designed for rapid (72 hours vs. 45 days for PSLV) and low-cost deployment of small satellites (10 to 500 kg) into LEO. It can be assembled both vertically and horizontally. A new spaceport for SSLV is being built at Kulasekarapattinam, Tamil Nadu.
• RLV-TD (Reusable Launch Vehicle – Technology Demonstrator): A fully reusable spacecraft demonstrator, also known as "Pushpak", aimed at significantly reducing launch costs and enabling future space missions. India successfully tested its re-entry and recovery in 2007.
• Private Sector Rockets: India's private space sector has also started developing launch vehicles. Skyroot Aerospace launched "Vikram-S," India's first privately built rocket, in 2022, and Agnikul Cosmos is developing the 3D-printed "Agnibaan" rocket.

Institutional Setup

Several key institutions and organizations work together to manage and advance India's space program.

• ISRO (Indian Space Research Organisation): Established in 1969 with its headquarters in Bengaluru, it is the primary organization responsible for space research and development, satellite launches, and exploration projects.
• Key Centers under ISRO:
  • Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre (VSSC), Thiruvananthapuram: Leads the design and development of launch vehicle technology (PSLV, GSLV).
  • Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre (LPSC), Thiruvananthapuram, Bengaluru, and Mahendragiri: Designs and develops liquid propulsion stages for launch vehicles, including cryogenic engines.
  • Satish Dhawan Space Centre (SDSC-SHAR), Sriharikota, Andhra Pradesh: India's primary spaceport for integrating and launching satellites.
  • U R Rao Satellite Centre (URSC), Bengaluru: Formerly ISRO Satellite Centre (ISAC), it is the lead center for building satellites and developing associated technology.
  • Space Applications Centre (SAC), Ahmedabad: Focuses on developing space-borne instruments, payloads, and their applications for national development, including communication transponders for INSAT series.
  • National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC), Hyderabad: Responsible for satellite imaging, remote sensing data acquisition, processing, and dissemination, particularly for environmental and agricultural monitoring.
  • ISRO Telemetry, Tracking and Command Network (ISTRAC), Bengaluru: Provides tracking support for all satellite and launch vehicle missions.
  • Human Space Flight Centre (HSFC), Bengaluru: Recently established for the implementation of the Gaganyaan project, focusing on astronaut modules and life support systems.
  • Physical Research Laboratory (PRL), Ahmedabad: Founded by Vikram Sarabhai, it's a national center for research in space and allied sciences.
• Commercial Arms:
  • Antrix Corporation Limited, Bengaluru: Established in 1992, it is a wholly-owned Government of India company and serves as ISRO's marketing and commercial arm for space products and services to international customers.
  • NewSpace India Limited (NSIL), Bengaluru: Incorporated in 2019, it is another wholly-owned Government of India company and ISRO's commercial arm, focusing on promoting and commercializing products and services from the Indian space program, including production of launch vehicles (PSLV, SSLV) and building satellites through industry.
• Regulatory Bodies:
  • IN-SPACe (Indian National Space Promotion and Authorization Center): Established in June 2020, it is an independent nodal agency under DoS that promotes, hand-holds, guides, and authorizes the participation of private players in space activities, including building launch vehicles, satellites, and providing space-based services.
• Industry Bodies:
  • Indian Space Association (ISpA): Founded in October 2021, this non-profit industry body represents the private space industry and acts as a bridge between the government and private sector to foster collaborative development.

Private Space Sector and Future Plans

India has seen rapid growth in its private space sector, with policy reforms allowing private companies to participate in space missions, rocket launches, and satellite manufacturing.

• Policy Reforms: The Indian Space Policy 2023 emphasizes augmenting space capabilities, developing a flourishing commercial presence, and using space as a driver for technology. It allows 100% Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) in the space sector.
• Leading Private Companies:
  • Skyroot Aerospace: Launched India's first privately built rocket, "Vikram-S," in 2022.
  • Agnikul Cosmos: Developing the 3D-printed "Agnibaan" rocket.
  • Pixxel: Developing hyperspectral imaging satellites.
  • Dhruva Space: Specializes in small satellites and cubesat missions.
  • Bellatrix Aerospace: Developing propulsion technology and electric thrusters.
  • Digiantra Research and Technology: Developed India's first in-orbit space debris monitoring and tracking system.
  • OKAPI Orbits: Focuses on space situational awareness.
• Future Space Missions:
  • Gaganyaan: India's first crewed space mission.
  • Bharatiya Antariksh Station: India's own space station planned by 2035.
  • Mangalyaan-2: A more advanced Mars mission (expected 2026-27).
  • Shukrayaan-1: India's first Venus mission (expected 2025-26).
  • Chandrayaan-4: Possible sample return mission.
  • Aditya-L2 and L3: Future solar missions.
  • LUPEX (Lunar Polar Exploration Mission): Joint mission with Japan by 2026.
• Space Tourism & Commercial Prospects: ISRO and private companies may offer space tourism services. Focus on lunar mining and deep space resource utilization is also anticipated post-2030. India is emerging as a global hub for small and affordable satellite launches.

India's Global Contribution in Space

India has made significant global contributions through its space program, establishing itself as a leader in cost-effective and high-quality missions.

• Satellite Launch Services: PSLV is recognized as one of the most reliable and cost-effective launchers globally. India holds a world record for launching 104 satellites in a single mission (2017). It has launched over 430 foreign satellites from more than 50 countries.
• International Collaborations: India actively collaborates with international space agencies such as NASA (NISAR mission), Roscosmos (for Gaganyaan astronaut training), ESA, and JAXA.
• Global Communication & Navigation Services: NavIC offers India's own independent navigation system, and GSAT-9 provides communication services to South Asian countries.
• Scientific Contributions: India's missions like Chandrayaan-1 (discovery of lunar water), Mangalyaan (cost-effective Mars mission), and Chandrayaan-3 (south pole landing) have significantly contributed to global space science.
• Commercial Space Sector: NSIL and private startups are providing commercial launch services to the international market.

Space Technology and National Security

India's space technology plays a crucial role in enhancing national security.

• Defense Satellites: Satellites like RISAT and GSAT-7 (Rukmini) provide critical surveillance and communication for military operations and border security.
• Mission Shakti (Anti-Satellite - ASAT Test): In March 2019, India successfully conducted an ASAT missile test, demonstrating its capability to intercept and destroy a live satellite in low Earth orbit, becoming the fourth country (after USA, Russia, China) to acquire this specialized capacity.
• Future Prospects: India is developing capabilities in space-based surveillance, quantum communication for military use, and intends to be prepared for future space warfare.

Space Debris and Mitigation Efforts

The increasing congestion in Low Earth Orbit due to space debris is a growing concern.

• IS4OM (ISRO System for Safe & Sustainable Space Operations): Launched in 2022, this control center in Bengaluru tracks, deflects, and removes space debris harmful to Indian space assets.
• Project NETRA (Network for Space Object Tracking and Analysis): An early warning system by ISRO to detect debris and other hazards to satellites.
• Debris Free Space Missions (DFSM): Announced by ISRO in April 2024, this initiative aims for all Indian space actors (governmental and non-governmental) to achieve debris-free missions by 2030.
• Terminator Tape: A proposed solution involving a conductive tape to de-orbit satellites once they are no longer in use.