Chemistry

Table to Remember

Category/Type	Examples/Details/Sources
Acids & Bases
Strong Acid	Hydrochloric acid (HCl) Sulphuric acid (H₂SO₄) Nitric acid (HNO₃) Hydrobromic acid (HBr) Hydroiodic acid (HI)
Weak Acid	Acetic acid (CH₃COOH) Carbonic acid (H₂CO₃) Citric acid Formic acid (HCOOH) Hydrofluoric acid (HF) Lactic acid
Strong Base	Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) Calcium hydroxide [Ca(OH)₂] Potassium hydroxide (KOH) Sodium oxide (Na₂O) Calcium oxide (CaO)
Weak Base	Ammonium hydroxide (NH₄OH) Washing soda (Na₂CO₃) Baking soda solution (NaHCO₃) Ammonia (NH₃) Magnesium hydroxide [Mg(OH)₂]
Acidic Salt	Aluminium chloride (AlCl₃) Zinc sulphate (ZnSO₄) Copper sulphate (CuSO₄) Ammonium chloride (NH₄Cl) Aluminium sulphate [Al₂(SO₄)₃]
Basic Salt	Sodium acetate (CH₃COONa) Sodium carbonate (Na₂CO₃) Sodium hydrogencarbonate (NaHCO₃) Calcium carbonate (CaCO₃) Sodium benzoate (C₆H₅COONa)
Naturally Found Acids
Citric Acid	Citrus fruits (lemons, limes, oranges); Food preservation flavoring cleaning agent antioxidant component of metabolic pathways (Citric Acid Cycle).
Acetic Acid	Produced by fermentation of sugars; vinegar is a dilute solution; Food preservation (pickling) pH regulation antimicrobial agent.
Lactic Acid	Produced in muscles during anaerobic respiration; also in fermented foods; Muscle fatigue fermentation processes (yogurt sauerkraut) pH regulator.
Ascorbic Acid (Vitamin C)	Many fruits and vegetables (e.g. berrie, peppers, leafy greens); Antioxidant immune system support collagen synthesis.
Formic Acid	Ants, stinging nettles; Defense mechanism (insect bites) industrial chemical.
Tannic Acid	Bark of trees (e.g. oak, chestnut) tea leaves certain fruits; Tanning leather astringent (wound healing) antioxidant.
Amino Acids	All living organisms proteins; Building blocks for proteins essential for various biological processes.
Naturally Found Bases
Ammonia (as NH₄OH)	Decomposition of organic matter in soil and water; Nitrogen cycle fertilizer component of urine pH buffering.
Calcium Carbonate	Limestone chalk seashells; Shell and bone formation in marine organisms soil amendment antacid.
Magnesium Hydroxide	Brucite mineral seawater; Formation of dolomitic rocks buffering effect in natural waters antacid.
Hydroxide Ions	Natural waters (e.g. seawater lakes); pH regulation influence on aquatic ecosystems.
Phosphate	Minerals such as Apatite; Fertilizer component
Antacids
Modern Antacids	Sodium hydrogencarbonate a mixture of aluminium and magnesium hydroxide magnesium hydroxide (milk of magnesia) cimetidine ranitidine medicines like digene and gelusil (containing magnesium hydroxide)
Traditional Antacids	Lemon Tamarind Sodium hydrogencarbonate (Baking soda)
Drugs
Synthetic Drugs	aspirin paracetamol phenacetin chloroquine iodoform tincture of iodine ethyl alcohol phenol boric acid barbiturates (veronal amytal nembutal luminal seconal) valium serotonin morphine and its homologues novocain benadryl
Natural Drugs	Substances from various plants bark of willow tree (containing 2-hydroxy benzoic acid related to aspirin) parts of Rauwolfia serpentina (containing reserpine) quinine (originally from cinchona bark)
Antioxidants
Artificial Antioxidants	Butylated hydroxyl toluene (BHT) butylated hydroxyl anisole (BHA)
Preservatives
Natural Preservatives	Table salt sugar vegetable oils sodium benzoate citric acid (used in pickles ketchups jams) vinegar
Artificial Preservatives	Sodium benzoate (C6H5COONa) sodium metabisulphite (Na2S2O5) salts of sorbic acid salts of propanoic acid butylated hydroxyl toluene (BHT) butylated hydroxyl anisole (BHA)
Pesticides	DDT BHC Aldrin Dieldrin Organophosphates Carbamates
Fungicides	Organic compounds of mercury Methyl mercury fungicide
Herbicides	2,4-D Sodium chlorate Sodium arsenite (Na3AsO3) Organic herbicide Triazines
Biofertilizers
Bacteria Biofertilizers	Rhizobium (in root nodules of leguminous plants) Azospirillum (free-living) Azotobacter (free-living) Pseudomonas Thiobacillus (involved in denitrification) Lactobacillus
Cyanobacteria (Blue-green algae) Biofertilizers	Increase soil fertility by fixing atmospheric nitrogen Nostoc (filamentous)
Organic Manure	Animal excreta (cow dung etc.) plant waste domestic waste sewage waste straw eradicated weeds grass droppings/urine of birds/animals vermi-compost
Vermi-compost	Produced by earthworms feeding on cow dung dry leaves grass remnants of rice plants and plant refuse.
Compost	Created from the decomposition of household wastes (refuse vegetables and animals).
Green Manure	Plants like sun hemp or guar grown and then ploughed into the soil enriching it with nitrogen and phosphorus.
Fertilizers
Nitrogenous Fertilizers	Supply nitrogen. Usually given in two or three doses. Examples: urea ammonium sulphate.
Phosphatic Fertilizers	Supply phosphorus. Examples: super phosphate ammonium phosphate.
Potash Fertilizers	Supply potassium. Example: Potash Curate of Potash.
NPK Fertilizers	Contain Nitrogen (N) Phosphorus (P) and Potassium (K).
Macronutrients (Fertilizer components)	Nitrogen (N) Phosphorus (P) Potassium (K) Sulphur (S) Calcium Magnesium. Required in large quantities.
Micronutrients (Fertilizer components)	Copper (Cu) Zinc (Zn) Iron (Fe) Manganese (Mn) Boron Molybdenum Chlorine. Used by plants in small quantities.
Sweeteners
Natural Sweeteners	Sucrose (cane sugar beet root) Glucose (sweet fruits honey grapes) Fructose (honey ripe fruits) Lactose (milk) Maltose (sprouted cereals)
Artificial Sweeteners	Saccharin (Ortho-sulphobenzimide) Aspartame Sucralose (trichloro derivative of sucrose) Alitame
Binders (Natural)	Starch (corn potato wheat rice) Gelatin (derived from collagen) Gum Arabic (acacia trees) Pectin (plants) Casein (milk)
Binders (Artificial)	Polyvinyl Alcohol (PVA) Acrylic Polymers Epoxy Resins Portland Cement Bentonite Clay (processed)
Antihistamines	brompheniramine (Dimetapp) terfenadine (Seldane) diphenhydramine (Benadryl) pheniramine maleate (Avil) chlorspheniramine maleate (zect) citrazine
Antidepressants	iproniazid phenelzine Equanil
Analgesics	Aspirin Paracetamol Morphine Codeine
Antibiotics	Penicillin Streptomycin Chloramphenicol Erythromycin Tetracycline Ofloxacin Aminoglycosides Cephalosporin Chlorotetracycline
Antiseptics	Furacine Soframicine Dettol (chloroxylenol and terpineol) Bithionol Iodoform (CHI3) Tincture of iodine Ethyl alcohol 0.2 percent aqueous solution of phenol Boric acid (H3BO3) Acriflavine Mercurochrome Methylene blue
Disinfectants	Chlorine (0.2-0.4 ppm) Sulphur dioxide (low conc.) Bleaching powder (CaOCl2) Mercuric chloride (HgCl2) Sodium hypochlorite (NaClO) Phenol (higher conc.) Formaldehyde Silver nitrate
Anti-fertility Drugs	Birth control pills (synthetic estrogen and progesterone derivatives) Norethindrone Ethynylestradiol (novestrol) Mestranol
Tranquilizers	Barbiturates (veronal amytal nembutal luminal seconal) Valium Serotonin Chlordiazepoxide Meprobamate Equanil Iproniazid Phenelzine

Ch-1: States of Matter

• What is matter?

  • Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass.
  • It's made up of atoms and molecules.
  • There are three main states: Solid, Liquid, Gas
  • Modern science also includes Plasma and Bose-Einstein Condensate (BEC).

• States of Matter and their Properties

  • (i) Solid State
    • Molecules in solids are tightly packed and vibrate.
    • Intermolecular attractive forces are very high.
    • Solids have a definite shape and volume.
    • Molecules are fixed in place, so solids are rigid.
    • Examples: ice, iron, wood, copper

• Characteristics of Solids

  • High density
  • Incompressible
  • Diffusion is absent or very slow.

• (ii) Liquid State

  • Molecules are less densely packed than in solids.
  • Intermolecular attractive forces are weaker than in solids.
  • Definite volume but no definite shape.
  • Liquids can flow and have surface tension.
  • Examples: water, mercury, milk, oil

• Characteristics of Liquids

  • Incompressible
  • Diffusion is faster than in solids.
  • Volume is definite but shape is not.
  • Bernoulli's Theorem and Surface Tension are important.

• (iii) Gaseous State

  • Intermolecular attractive forces are the weakest.
  • Gases have no definite shape or volume.
  • Gas particles move freely and fill the entire space.
  • Examples: oxygen, hydrogen, carbon dioxide

• Characteristics of Gases

  • Compressible
  • Diffusion is very fast.
  • Gas properties are understood through Boyle's Law, Charles' Law, and the Ideal Gas Equation.

• (iv) Plasma State

  • Contains a mixture of positive ions and free electrons.
  • Gas turns into plasma under extreme heat and energy.
  • Can conduct electricity and is sensitive to magnetic fields.
  • Examples: Sun, stars, lightning, neon bulbs

• Characteristics of Plasma

  • It is a highly energetic state.
  • Contains charged particles that react to electric and magnetic fields.

• (v) Bose-Einstein Condensate (BEC)

  • At extremely low temperatures (near -273°C), atoms merge into a single quantum state.

• Albert Einstein and Satyendra Nath Bose theoretically proposed it, and it was experimentally proven in 1995.

• Example: Superfluid helium-4

• Characteristics of BEC

  • Molecules behave like a single giant particle.
  • Diffusion is very slow.

• Process of Changing States (Phase Changes of Matter)

  • Matter can change from one state to another under the influence of temperature and pressure.
    • (i) Melting
      • When a solid turns into a liquid upon increasing temperature.
      • Example: Ice turning into water (at 0°C).
    • (ii) Evaporation
      • When a liquid turns into a gas.
      • This happens due to increased temperature and increased kinetic energy of surface molecules.
      • Example: Water turning into steam (at 100°C).
    • (iii) Condensation
      • When a gas turns into a liquid.
      • Example: Steam turning into water.
    • (iv) Sublimation
      • When a solid directly turns into a gas without becoming a liquid.
      • Example: Camphor and dry ice (CO2).
    • (v) Freezing
      • When a liquid turns into a solid.
      • Example: Water turning into ice.

• Gas Laws

  • Various laws are important to understand the properties of gases.
    • (i) Boyle's Law
      • The product of pressure (P) and volume (V) remains constant if the temperature is constant.
      • pv = constant if T = constant
    • (ii) Charles' Law
      • If the pressure is constant, the volume of a gas is proportional to the temperature.
    • (iii) Gay-Lussac's Law
      • If the volume is constant, the pressure of a gas is proportional to the temperature.
    • (iv) Ideal Gas Equation
      • PV = nRT, where
        • P = Pressure
        • V = Volume
        • n = Number of moles
        • R = Gas constant
        • T = Temperature

• Important Points

  • Five states of matter - Solid, Liquid, Gas, Plasma, BEC.
  • Processes of state change - Melting, Evaporation, Condensation, Freezing, Sublimation.
  • Gas Laws - Boyle's, Charles', Gay-Lussac's, Ideal Gas Equation.
  • Plasma State - Highly energetic, found in stars and lightning.
  • BEC State - Atoms condense together at extremely low temperatures.
  • Experiment - Boyle's Law applies to gas balloons, Charles' Law applies to hot air balloons.

Ch-2: Atomic Structure

• Introduction to Atom

  • Atom: The smallest unit of an element that can participate in chemical reactions.
  • Size of an atom: ~ 10^-10 meters (1 Å)
  • Subatomic particles of an atom:
    • Electron (e-)
    • Proton (p+)
    • Neutron (n°)

• Important Atomic Models

  • (i) Dalton's Atomic Theory
    • In 1808, John Dalton stated that the atom is indivisible and a solid sphere.

• Limitations: It could not explain the discovery of electrons, protons, neutrons, and isotopes.

• (ii) Thomson's Model (Plum Pudding Model)

  • J.J. Thomson (1897) considered the atom to be like "plums in a pudding."
  • Electrons are scattered in a positively charged sphere.
  • Limitations: It could not explain the stability of the atom.

• (iii) Rutherford's Nuclear Model

  • Proposed in 1911 through the Gold Foil (alpha-particle) experiment.
  • The nucleus of the atom is positively charged and contains protons and neutrons.
  • Electrons revolve around the nucleus.
  • Limitations: It could not explain the stability of electrons and energy levels.

• (iv) Bohr's Atomic Model

  • Niels Bohr (1913) gave the model to explain the hydrogen atom spectrum.
  • Rules:
    • Electrons revolve only in definite energy levels (K, L, M, N...).
    • Energy is quantized in energy levels.
    • Electrons move to higher/lower orbits by absorbing/emitting energy.
    • Limitations: It failed for multi-electron elements.

• Quantum Mechanical Model

  • De Broglie Principle (1924) - Electron follows wave-particle duality.
  • Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle (1927) - It is not possible to know the position and velocity of an electron precisely simultaneously.
  • Schrödinger Wave Equation (1926) - The electron is described by a wave function (Ψ).
  • Concept of orbital instead of orbit.

• Quantum Numbers

  • Types of Orbitals
    • s (l=0), p (l=1), d (l=2), f (l=3)
    • The s orbital is spherical, the p orbital is dumbbell-shaped.

• Pauli Exclusion Principle

  • A maximum of 2 electrons can be in an orbital, and their spins will be opposite.

• Aufbau Principle

  • Electrons first fill the lowest energy level.
  • Order of energy levels: 1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < 3p < 4s < 3d < 4p < 5s...

• Hund's Rule

  • Electrons first fill the orbitals of the same energy level singly, then pair up.

• Hydrogen Spectrum

  • Line Spectrum: Radiation is emitted from the elevation and de-elevation of electrons in hydrogen.
  • Balmer Series - In visible light (n=2 to higher level).
  • Lyman Series - In UV (n=1 to higher level).
  • Paschen, Bracket, Fund Series - In Infrared (IR).

• De-Broglie Wavelength

  • Electrons have both wave and particle properties.
  • Equation: λ = h/mv

• Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle

  • It is not possible to know the position (Δx) and velocity (Δp) of an electron precisely simultaneously.
  • Equation: Δx ⋅ Δp ≥ h/4π

• Electronic Configuration

  • Hydrogen (H) → 1s¹
  • Helium (He) → 1s²
  • Carbon (C) → 1s² 2s² 2p²
  • Nitrogen (N) → 1s² 2s² 2p³
  • Oxygen (O) → 1s² 2s² 2p⁴

• Important Facts

  • Lightest atom - Hydrogen (H)
  • Most stable nucleus - Iron (Fe)
  • Most electronegative element - Fluorine (F)
  • Largest atomic radius - Cesium (Cs)
  • First transition series - 3d (Sc → Zn)

Ch-3: Metals, Non-Metals, and Metalloids

• Metals

  • Definition:
    • Elements that form cations by donating electrons from their outermost shell and are good conductors of heat and electricity are called metals.
    • Examples: Iron (Fe), Copper (Cu), Aluminum (Al), Gold (Au), Silver (Ag)
  • Physical Properties:
    1. Metallic Lustre - Metals are shiny (like gold and silver).
    2. Ductility - Metals can be drawn into wires (like copper, gold).
    3. Malleability - Metals can be turned into thin sheets (like aluminum, gold).
    4. Good Conductors of Heat and Electricity - Silver and copper are the best conductors.
    5. High Density and High Melting Point - Tungsten (W) has the highest melting point (3422°C).
    6. Strength - Metals like iron (Fe) and titanium (Ti) are strong.
    7. Exceptions:
       • Mercury (Hg) is the only liquid metal.
       • Sodium (Na) and Potassium (K) are light metals and float on water.
  • Chemical Properties:
    1. Metal + Oxygen → Metal Oxide (basic in nature)
       • 4Na + O₂ → 2Na₂O
       • 2Mg + O₂ → 2MgO
    2. Metal + Water → Hydroxide + Hydrogen Gas
       • 2Na + 2H₂O → 2NaOH + H₂
       • Ca + 2H₂O → Ca(OH)₂ + H₂
    3. Metal + Acid → Salt + Hydrogen Gas
       • Zn + H₂SO₄ → ZnSO₄ + H₂
    4. Metal + Halogen → Metal Halide
       • 2Na + Cl₂ → 2NaCl
  • Uses:
    • Copper (Cu) - In electrical wires.
    • Aluminum (Al) - In airplanes and power lines.
    • Iron (Fe) - In building construction.
    • Tungsten (W) - In light bulb filaments.

• Non-Metals

  • Definition:
    • Elements that form anions by accepting electrons in their outer shell and are insulators of heat and electricity are called non-metals.
    • Examples: Oxygen (O₂), Nitrogen (N₂), Hydrogen (H₂), Sulfur (S), Phosphorus (P), Chlorine (Cl₂)
  • Physical Properties:
    1. Non-metallic luster - Exception: Iodine (I₂)
    2. Insulators of heat and electricity - Exception: Graphite (C) is a conductor.
    3. Soft and brittle - Like sulfur and phosphorus
    4. Low density and low melting point - Like oxygen and nitrogen gas.
    5. Found in different states:
       • Gas: Oxygen (O₂), Hydrogen (H₂)
       • Solid: Carbon (C), Sulfur (S)
       • Liquid: Bromine (Br₂)
  • Chemical Properties:
    1. Non-Metal + Oxygen → Acidic Oxide
       • C + O₂ → CO₂
       • S + O₂ → SO₂
    2. Non-Metal + Metal → Ionic Compound
       • 2Na + Cl₂ → 2NaCl
    3. Non-Metal + Hydrogen → Hydride
       • H₂ + Cl₂ → 2HCl
  • Uses:
    • Oxygen (O₂) - In respiration.
    • Nitrogen (N₂) - In fertilizer production.
    • Hydrogen (H₂) - In fuel.
    • Sulfur (S) - In medicines.

• Metalloids

  • Definition:
    • Elements that have properties of both metals and non-metals are called metalloids.
    • Examples: Silicon (Si), Boron (B), Germanium (Ge), Arsenic (As), Antimony (Sb), Tellurium (Te)
  • Main Properties:
    1. Metallic luster but brittle.
    2. Semiconductors.
    3. Conductors of electricity in some situations and insulators in others.
    4. Behave like metals at high temperatures.
  • Uses:
    • Silicon (Si) - In computer chips and solar panels.
    • Boron (B) - In rocket fuel.
    • Germanium (Ge) - In transistors.
    • Arsenic (As) - In pesticides.

• Important Facts

  • (i) Important One-liner Facts:
    1. Most ductile and malleable metal? - Gold (Au)
    2. Lightest metal? - Lithium (Li)
    3. Hardest non-metal? - Diamond
    4. Only liquid metal? - Mercury (Hg)
    5. Most reactive metal? - Francium (Fr)
    6. Most reactive non-metal? - Fluorine (F₂)
    7. Best conductor of electricity? - Silver (Ag)

Ch-4: Metallurgy - Principles and Methods

Metallurgy is the science in which metals are extracted from minerals, purified, and processed for their use.

• Major Principles of Metallurgy

  • (i) Minerals and Ores
    • Minerals: Natural compounds in which metals are found are called minerals.
    • Ores: Minerals from which metals can be extracted profitably are called ores.
    • Examples:
      • Iron Ores → Hematite (Fe₂O₃), Magnetite (Fe₃O₄)
      • Aluminum Ore → Bauxite (Al₂O₃.2H₂O)
      • Zinc Ore → Zinc Blende (ZnS), Calamine (ZnCO₃)
  • (ii) Important Principles for Metal Extraction
    1. Reactivity Series:
       • More reactive metals are extracted from their ores with more energy.
       • Less reactive metals are extracted by simple chemical methods.
    2. Ellingham Diagram:
       • Indicates the temperature required for the reduction of a metal oxide.
       • More negative Gibbs free energy (ΔG°) means more stable compounds.
    3. Gangue and Slag:
       • Impurities found with ores are called gangue.
       • Flux is added to remove gangue, forming slag.

• Methods of Metal Extraction

  • (i) Concentration of Ores
    • The following methods are used to increase the concentration of metal in an ore:
      1. Gravity Separation / Hydraulic Washing
         • Heavy metal ores are separated from lighter impurities based on density.
         • Example: Removing impurities from tin stone (SnO₂).
      2. Magnetic Separation
         • If the ore has magnetic properties, it is separated from non-magnetic substances.
         • Example: Magnetite (Fe₃O₄) and Pyrolusite (MnO₂).
      3. Froth Flotation Method
         • This method is useful for sulfide ores.
         • Bubbles are formed by adding soap or detergent, which bring the ore particles to the top.
         • Example: Zinc blende (ZnS), Copper pyrite (CuFeS₂).
      4. Leaching - Chemical Concentration Method
         • The metal is separated from its ore by dissolving it in a suitable solvent.
         • Example: Extraction of bauxite (Al₂O₃.2H₂O) with sodium hydroxide (NaOH).

• (ii) Reduction of Ores

  • Metals are reduced from their oxides, sulfides, or carbonates.
    1. Thermal Decomposition:
       • When carbonates or hydroxides are heated, metal oxide is formed.
       • CaCO₃ → CaO + CO₂
    2. Reduction by Carbon:
       • At high temperatures, the oxide is converted to metal with coke (C) or carbon monoxide (CO).
       • Fe₂O₃ + 3CO → 2Fe + 3CO₂

• (iii) Methods of Refining Metals

  • After metal extraction, impurities are found in it, which are removed by the following methods:
    1. Liquation Method:
       • The metal with a low melting point is heated to separate it.
       • Example: Tin (Sn).
    2. Distillation Method:
       • To separate volatile metals.
       • Example: Mercury (Hg), Zinc (Zn).
    3. Electrolytic Refining:
       • The metal is refined in an electrolytic cell.
       • Example: Copper (Cu), Aluminum (Al).
    4. Zone Refining:
       • Used for high-purity semiconductor metals (Si, Ge).

• Important Metal Extraction

  • (i) Iron Extraction - Blast Furnace Method
    • Ore: Hematite (Fe₂O₃)
    • Flux: Limestone (CaCO₃)
    • Reducing Agent: Coke (C)
    • Product: Fe + CO₂ + CaSiO₃ (Slag)
  • (ii) Aluminum Extraction - Hall-Héroult Method
    • Ore: Bauxite (Al₂O₃.2H₂O)
    • Method: Electrolysis
    • Product: Al + O₂
    • (iii) Copper Extraction - Pyrometallurgy
      • Ore: Copper Pyrite (CuFeS₂)
      • Product: Cu + SO₂

• Important Facts

  1. Most abundant metallic ore? - Bauxite (Aluminum)
  2. Metal extracted by electrolysis? - Na, K, Al
  3. What is used in the Thermite reaction? - Fe₂O₃ and Al
  4. What is electrolytic refining used for? - Cu, Al, Ag

Ch-5: Important Ores and Alloys

• Important Metals and their Ores

Metal	Ore Name	Chemical Formula
Aluminum (Al)	Bauxite	Al₂O₃·2H₂O
	Cryolite	Na₃AlF₆
	Corundum	Al₂O₃
Iron (Fe)	Hematite	Fe₂O₃
	Magnetite	Fe₃O₄
	Limonite	Fe₂O₃·3H₂O
	Siderite	FeCO₃
Copper (Cu)	Copper Pyrite	CuFeS₂
	Cuprite	Cu₂O
	Malachite	CuCO₃·Cu(OH)₂
	Azurite	2CuCO₃·Cu(OH)₂
Zinc (Zn)	Zinc Blende (Sphalerite)	ZnS
	Calamine	ZnCO₃
	Zincite	ZnO
Gold (Au)	Native Gold	(Pure Form)
	Sylvanite	AuAgTe₄
Silver (Ag)	Silver Glance (Argentite)	Ag₂S
	Proustite	Ag₃SbS₃
	Horn Silver	AgCl
Lead (Pb)	Galena	PbS
	Cerussite	PbCO₃
	Anglesite	PbSO₄
Tin (Sn)	Cassiterite (Tin Stone)	SnO₂
Manganese (Mn)	Pyrolusite	MnO₂
	Manganite	Mn₃O₄
	Rhodochrosite	MnCO₃
Chromium (Cr)	Chromite	FeCr₂O₄

• Methods of Metal Extraction
  1. General Methods of Production:
     • Physical Methods: Flotation, Magnetic Separation
     • Chemical Methods: Roasting, Calcination, Reduction
  2. Aluminum Extraction:
     • Bayer Process: Obtaining Alumina (Al₂O₃) from Bauxite
     • Hall-Héroult Process: Obtaining Aluminum metal by Electrolysis
  3. Iron Extraction:
     • Iron Extraction by Blast Furnace Method
     • Using haematite and coke
  4. Copper Extraction:
     • Obtaining copper from Copper Pyrite by Roasting and Smelting.
  5. Zinc Extraction:
     • Obtaining Zinc metal by Roasting and Electrolysis.
• Alloys and their Uses
  • (A) What is an Alloy?
    • A mixture of two or more metals (or metal + non-metal) that improves physical and mechanical properties.
    • Examples: Stainless steel, brass, bronze, etc.
  • (B) Important Alloys and their Components:

Alloy	Composition	Characteristics	Uses
Stainless Steel	Fe + Cr + Ni	Rust-resistant, strong	Kitchen utensils, industrial equipment
Brass	Cu + Zn	Hard, shiny	Electrical plants, decoration
Bronze	Cu + Sn	Corrosion-resistant, durable	Statues, coins
Duralumin	Al + Cu + Mg + Mn	Light and strong	Aircraft construction, automobiles
Nichrome	Ni + Cr + Fe	Heat resistant	Heating coils, electric iron
Gun Metal	Cu + Sn + Zn	Strong and corrosion-resistant	Cannons and pipes
Solder Alloy	Pb + Sn	Low melting point	To join electrical circuits
Amalgam	Hg + Other metal	(Not specified)	Dentistry, cleaning gold and silver

• Uses of Ores and Alloys
  1. Commercial Uses:
     • Aluminum: Aircraft, electrical wires
     • Iron: Machine building, construction industry
     • Copper: Electrical wires, pipes
     • Zinc: Anti-rust coating, batteries
  2. Uses of Alloys:
     • Stainless steel: Kitchen equipment
     • Bronze: Statues and coins
     • Duralumin: Aerospace industry

Ch-6: Acids, Bases and Salts and pH Scale

• Acids
  • Definition:
    • Substances that produce H+ (hydrogen ions) when dissolved in water are called acids.
    • General Properties: Sour taste, turn blue litmus red, electrical conductivity, etc.
  • Types of Acids:
    • (A) Natural and Artificial Acids
      • Natural Acids: Citric acid in lemon, acetic acid in vinegar.
      • Artificial Acids: HCl (hydrochloric acid), H₂SO₄ (sulfuric acid).
    • (B) Based on Electrolytic Dissociation
      1. Strong Acids: Completely ionized in water.
         • Examples: HCl, H₂SO₄, HNO₃
      2. Weak Acids: Partially ionized in water.
         • Examples: CH₃COOH (acetic acid), H₂CO₃ (carbonic acid)
    • (C) Based on Source
      1. Organic Acids: Obtained from biological sources.
         • Examples: Citric acid (lemon), lactic acid (yogurt)
      2. Inorganic Acids: Obtained from minerals.
         • Examples: H₂SO₄, HNO₃, HCl
  • Important Uses of Acids:
    1. H₂SO₄ - Used in batteries, fertilizers, dyes.
    2. HNO₃ - In explosives, chemical fertilizers.
    3. HCl - Used for digestion in the stomach, industrial cleaning.
• Bases/Alkalis
  • Definition:
    • Substances that produce OH- (hydroxide ions) when dissolved in water are called bases.
    • General Properties: Bitter taste, turn red litmus blue, slippery to the touch.
  • Types of Bases:
    • (A) Based on Electrolytic Dissociation
      1. Strong Bases: Completely ionized in water.
         • Examples: NaOH (sodium hydroxide), KOH (potassium hydroxide)
      2. Weak Bases: Partially ionized in water.
         • Examples: NH₄OH (ammonium hydroxide), Mg(OH)₂ (magnesium hydroxide)
    • (B) Based on Solubility in Water
      1. Alkalis: Soluble in water.
         • Examples: NaOH, KOH, NH₄OH
      2. Insoluble Bases: Insoluble in water.
         • Examples: Cu(OH)₂, Fe(OH)₃
  • Important Uses of Bases:
    1. NaOH (caustic soda) - Soap, paper and detergent manufacturing.
    2. KOH (potash) - In batteries.
    3. Mg(OH)₂ (antacid) - To relieve acidity in the stomach.
• Salts
  • When an acid and a base react, salt and water are formed.
  • General Properties: Hard, soluble/insoluble in water, crystalline structure.
  • Types of Salts:
    1. Neutral Salts: Normal salts formed from the reaction of acid and base.
       • Example: NaCl (common salt), K₂SO₄ (potassium sulfate)
    2. Acidic Salts: Salts that are acidic in nature.
       • Example: NaHSO₄, NaHCO₃
    3. Basic Salts: Salts that are alkaline in nature.
       • Example: MgCl(OH), CaCO₃
  • Important Uses of Salts:
    1. NaCl (sodium chloride) - Food salt, preservative.
    2. Na₂CO₃ (washing soda) - For washing clothes.
    3. CaCO₃ (limestone) - Cement and construction work.
    4. KNO₃ (potassium nitrate) - Fertilizers and gunpowder.
• Acid-Base Indicators and pH Scale
  • pH Scale:
    • The pH scale (0 to 14) is used to measure the acidity or alkalinity of a solution.
    • pH < 7 → Acidic
    • pH = 7 → Neutral
    • pH > 7 → Alkaline
• Natural and Artificial Indicators:
  1. Litmus Paper
     • Acid → Blue to Red
     • Base → Red to Blue
  2. Methyl Orange
     • Acid → Red
     • Base → Yellow
  3. Phenolphthalein
     • Acid → Colorless
     • Base → Pink Conclusion: Acids, bases, and salts are important components of chemistry, used in daily life, industry, agriculture, and medicine. Understanding pH balance is essential for understanding biological and chemical processes.

Ch-7 Important Medicines (Synthetic and Natural), Antioxidants and Preservatives

Medicines: Chemical compounds or substances that help prevent, treat, or diagnose diseases. They can be obtained from synthetic and natural sources. Synthetic Drugs: Prepared in the laboratory through various chemical reactions.

🧪 Drug Classification

Basis of Classification	Description	Example
Pharmacological Effect	Based on drug's effect. Useful for doctors to identify available treatments.	Analgesics (pain-killing), Antiseptics (kill microorganisms)
Drug Action	Based on action on a specific biochemical process.	Antihistamines inhibit histamine (inflammation)
Chemical Structure	Based on shared structural features and similar activity.	Sulphonamides have a common structural feature
Molecular Targets	Based on the biomolecule the drug interacts with. Most useful for medicinal chemists.	Drugs targeting specific proteins

🧬 Drug-Target Interaction

Enzyme Interaction

Mechanism	Description
Catalytic Action	Enzymes hold substrates in position and provide functional groups for reaction.
Competitive Inhibitors	Drugs compete with the natural substrate for the active site.
Non-competitive Inhibitors	Drugs bind to an allosteric site, changing enzyme shape and preventing substrate binding.

Receptor Interaction

Type	Action	Use
Antagonists	Bind and block receptor function.	Block unwanted chemical messages.
Agonists	Mimic natural messengers, activating receptors.	Used when natural messenger is lacking.

💊 Different Classes of Drugs

Antacids

Type	Examples	Function
Traditional	Sodium hydrogen carbonate, Milk of Magnesia	Neutralize excess acid
Modern	Cimetidine, Ranitidine	Block histamine-stimulated acid secretion

Antihistamines

Examples	Function
Citrazine, Avil, Citrazine, Seldane (Terfenadine), Benadryl	Interfere with histamine effects (e.g. vasodilation)

Tranquilizers

Type	Examples	Use
Antidepressants	Iproniazid, Phenelzine	Inhibit breakdown of noradrenaline
Mild Tranquilizers	Chlordiazepoxide, Meprobamate	Relieve tension and anxiety
Strong Tranquilizers	Equanil	Control depression and hypertension
Hypnotic Barbiturates	Veronal, Amytal, Nembutal, Luminal, Seconal	Induce sleep
Others	Valium, Serotonin	Tranquilizing effects

🩹 Analgesics

Analgesic Type	Examples	Effects
Non-narcotic	Aspirin, Paracetamol	Pain relief, anti-inflammatory, antipyretic, prevent clotting
Narcotic	Morphine	Strong pain relief, induces sleep; toxic in high doses

🦠 Antimicrobials

Antimicrobial Type	Examples	Use
Antibiotics	Penicillin, Erythromycin, Tetracycline, Ofloxacin, Chloramphenicol	Treat infections
Antiseptics	Furacine, Soframicine, Dettol, Iodine	Apply to wounds and cuts
Disinfectants	Chlorine, Sulfur dioxide, Phenol	Clean non-living surfaces

💉 Antibiotics Spectrum & Type

Type	Examples	Action
Narrow Spectrum	Penicillin G	Effective against specific bacteria
Broad Spectrum	Ampicillin, Amoxycillin, Chloramphenicol, Vancomycin, Ofloxacin	Effective against wide range of bacteria
Bactericidal	Penicillin, Aminoglycosides, Ofloxacin	Kill bacteria
Bacteriostatic	Erythromycin, Tetracycline, Chloramphenicol	Inhibit bacterial growth
Cancer-specific	Dysidazirine	Toxic to certain cancer cells

🚫 Antifertility Drugs

Hormone Type	Example	Function
Synthetic Progesterone	Norethindrone	Suppresses ovulation
Synthetic Estrogen	Ethinylestradiol	Used in combination for birth control

🌿 Natural Medicines

Obtained from various plants, herbs, and minerals.

1. Ayurvedic Medicines

Examples:

• Ayurvedic decoction
• Triphala
• Ashwagandha Note: Boric acid is also used in Ayurvedic treatment for eye and skin infections.

2. Unani Medicines

Examples:

• Rogan Badam Shirin – Used for mental health.
• Habb-e-Suweida – Acts as a blood purifier.

3. Homeopathic Medicines

Examples:

• Arsenic Album – Used to boost immunity.
• Belladonna – Treats fever and infections.

Antioxidants

• Antioxidants help in food preservation by retarding the action of oxygen on food. They are more reactive towards oxygen than the food material they are protecting.
• When added to food items containing fats and oils, antioxidants retard oxidation, prevent rancidity, and prevent spoilage.
• Antioxidants work by reacting with free radicals and stopping the oxidation of food.
• The two most familiar antioxidants are butylated hydroxy toluene (BHT) and butylated hydroxy anisole (BHA).
• The addition of BHA to butter increases its shelf life from months to years.
• Sometimes BHT and BHA are added along with citric acid to produce a more effective antioxidant effect.
• Sulphur dioxide and sulphite are useful antioxidants for wine and beer, sugar syrups, and cut, peeled, or dried fruits and vegetables.
• Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) can show a more active synergistic effect when added with BHT and BHA.
• Common salt, sugar, and oils are mentioned as natural food preservatives. These work by various mechanisms, including resisting the activity of microorganisms. While not explicitly called antioxidants in that context, they contribute to preventing spoilage, which can involve oxidation.
• Keeping food items in airtight containers helps to slow down the oxidation process.
• Chips manufacturers often flush bags of chips with nitrogen gas to prevent the oxidation of oil present in the chips.
• The term "anti-oxidants" is usually used for substances that prevent oxidation. Natural Antioxidants:Sources:

• Vitamin C (lemon, orange, amla)
• Vitamin E (almonds, sunflower seeds)
• Beta-carotene (carrots, spinach)
• Selenium (fish, Brazil nuts) Synthetic Antioxidants:
• BHT (Butylated Hydroxytoluene) - In food preservation.
• BHA (Butylated Hydroxyanisole) - To prevent spoilage of oils and fats.

Preservatives

Definition: Substances that keep food, medicines, and other materials safe for a longer time are called preservatives. Types of Preservatives:(A) Natural PreservativesExamples:

• Salt - For preserving pickles and meat.
• Sugar - Used in jams and jellies.
• Lemon juice (Citric Acid) - In fruit preservation. (B) Artificial Preservatives
• Sodium Benzoate - In cold drinks and juices.
• Potassium Metabisulphite (K2S2O5) - In the preservation of dry fruits.
• Sodium Nitrate (NaNO3) - In meat and meat products.
• Salts of sorbic acid and propanoic acid are also used.

Ch-8: Insecticides, Pesticides, Fungicides and Herbicides

Category	Definition	Examples
Pesticides	Chemical substances used to kill or control pests including insects, fungi, weeds, rodents, etc.	- Chlorpyrifos (insecticide) - Captan (fungicide) - Glyphosate (herbicide) - Aldrin (soil insecticide)
Insecticides	Chemicals used to kill or repel harmful insects affecting crops and stored food. organo-chloride(DDT, Aldrin, Dieldrin) organophosphate , carbamates	- DDT, Malathion (contact) - Zinc Phosphide, Bayricks (stomach poison) - Methyl Bromide, Aluminum Phosphide (fumigants)
Fungicides	Substances that kill or inhibit the growth of fungi and their spores. organic compound of mercury , sulphur	- Copper Sulphate, Sulphur (contact) - Carbendazim, Mancozeb (systemic) - Bordeaux Mixture, Zineb (protective)
Herbicides	Chemicals used to kill or inhibit the growth of unwanted plants (weeds). 2,4-D Sodium Chlorate Sodium Arsenite	- Paraquat, Diquat (contact) - 2,4-D, Glyphosate (systemic) - Atrazine, Simazine (selective) - Glufosinate (non-selective)

1. Insecticides

Definition:
Insecticides are chemical substances used to kill or repel insects that damage crops, stored grains, and plants. Types:

1. Contact Insecticides – Kill insects on direct contact.
   Examples: DDT (now banned/restricted), Malathion.
2. Stomach Poisons – Act when ingested by insects.
   Examples: Zinc Phosphide, Bayricks.
3. Fumigants – Gaseous insecticides used in enclosed spaces.
   Examples: Methyl Bromide, Aluminum Phosphide. Uses:

• Protection of crops and stored food.
• Control of disease-carrying insects (e.g., mosquitoes).
• Prevention of post-harvest loss. Harmful Effects:
• Environmental pollution (soil, water, air).
• Bioaccumulation and harm to non-target organisms.
• Neurological and reproductive health risks in humans.
• Insect resistance over time.

2. Pesticides

Definition:
Pesticides are chemical substances used to kill or control pests such as insects, weeds, fungi, rodents, and nematodes. Types:

1. Insecticides – Kill insects.
2. Fungicides – Control fungal diseases.
3. Herbicides (Weedicides) – Eliminate weeds.
4. Nematicides – Control parasitic nematodes in soil.
5. Rodenticides – Kill rodents like rats and mice. Examples:

• Chlorpyrifos – Insecticide
• Captan – Fungicide
• Glyphosate – Herbicide (controversial)
• Aldrin – Soil insecticide (highly toxic, banned in many countries) Effects: ✅ Positive:
• Increased crop yields
• Reduced crop losses
• Improved food storage ⚠️ Negative:
• Contamination of water and soil
• Health hazards (cancer, hormone disruption, neurological disorders)
• Development of resistant pest species
• Harm to pollinators and biodiversity

3. Fungicides

Definition:
Fungicides are chemical compounds used to prevent, control, or eliminate fungal infections in crops. Types:

1. Contact Fungicides – Act on fungus upon contact.
   Examples: Copper Sulphate, Sulphur.
2. Systemic Fungicides – Absorbed and transported throughout the plant.
   Examples: Carbendazim, Mancozeb.
3. Protective Fungicides – Prevent infection before it occurs.
   Examples: Bordeaux Mixture, Zineb. Uses:

• Control of fungal infections in crops like wheat, grapes, tomatoes, and rice.
• Protection during grain storage.
• Disease control in fruits and vegetables. Harmful Effects:
• Groundwater contamination.
• Can reduce natural plant resistance.
• Prolonged exposure may lead to resistant fungal strains.

4. Herbicides (Weedicides)

Definition:
Herbicides are chemicals used to destroy unwanted plants (weeds) without harming crops. Types:

1. Contact Herbicides – Destroy plant parts they touch.
   Examples: Paraquat, Diquat.
2. Systemic Herbicides – Absorbed and circulated throughout the plant.
   Examples: 2,4-D Glyphosate.
3. Selective Herbicides – Target specific types of weeds.
   Examples: Atrazine, Simazine.
4. Non-Selective Herbicides – Kill all plant types.
   Examples: Glufosinate. Uses:

• Weed control in crop fields and irrigation canals.
• Improves crop productivity by reducing competition.
• Useful in areas difficult to manually clear. Harmful Effects:
• Potential birth defects and endocrine disruption.
• Toxic to mammals and aquatic life.
• May reduce beneficial soil microbes and cause runoff pollution.

5. Overall Impact & Precautions

✅ Positive Impacts:

1. Enhanced agricultural productivity.
2. Protection of crops from pests and diseases.
3. Improved food storage and shelf life.
4. Maintenance of soil nutrients (with proper use).

⚠️ Negative Impacts:

1. Human health risks – cancer, neurological issues, skin diseases.
2. Environmental pollution – air, soil, and water.
3. Biodiversity loss – harm to bees, birds, and aquatic life.
4. Bioaccumulation and biomagnification through food chains.

🛡️ Precautions and Safer Practices:

1. Use Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) during pesticide application.
2. Promote Integrated Pest Management (IPM) – combining biological, cultural, and chemical methods.
3. Favor biopesticides and organic farming practices.
4. Avoid overuse – apply only in recommended doses and at correct intervals.
5. Educate farmers on safe handling, storage, and disposal of pesticides.

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Ch-9 Fertilizers

1. Introduction

• Fertilizers are chemical substances added to the soil to provide nutrients essential for plant growth.
• Primarily used to supply macronutrients:
  • Nitrogen (N) – promotes leaf and stem growth
  • Phosphorus (P) – supports root development and flowering
  • Potassium (K) – aids in disease resistance and water regulation

2. Types of Fertilizers

Fertilizers are classified based on the primary nutrient they provide:

1. Nitrogenous Fertilizers

• Promote leafy growth and support chlorophyll production.
• Usually applied in multiple doses during crop growth.
• Examples:
  • Urea
  • Ammonium Sulphate
  • Calcium Ammonium Nitrate
  • Ammonium Nitrate (made using nitric acid)

2. Phosphatic Fertilizers

• Help in root growth, flowering, and fruit development.
• Derived from phosphoric acid (H₃PO₄) or organic sources like bone meal.
• Examples:
  • Super Phosphate
  • Diammonium Phosphate (DAP)
  • Bone Meal

3. Potassic (Potassium) Fertilizers

• Maintain water balance, disease resistance, and sturdy plant growth.
• Examples:
  • Muriate of Potash (MOP)
  • Sulphate of Potash (SOP)
  • Potassium Nitrate (also used in gunpowder)

4. Complex or Mixed Fertilizers

• Contain a mixture of N, P, and K in fixed ratios.
• Provide balanced nutrition to crops.
• Examples:
  • NPK (e.g., 17:17:17, 10:26:26)

3. Nutrient Content in Fertilizers

• Macronutrients: N, P, K, S
• Micronutrients: Cu (Copper), Zn (Zinc), Fe (Iron), Mn (Manganese)
• Fertilizers are usually rich in one or more specific nutrients.

4. Benefits of Fertilizers

• Enhance vegetative growth: better leaves, stems, and flowering
• Result in higher crop yields
• Enable quick nutrient absorption by plants
• Essential for intensive farming
• Help in growing nutrient-demanding crops on nutrient-depleted soils

5. Drawbacks and Environmental Impacts

Soil Degradation

• Overuse leads to loss of soil fertility
• Kills beneficial microorganisms and destroys soil structure
• Does not replenish organic matter

Water Pollution

• Fertilizers mix with rainwater and flow into water bodies (surface runoff)
• Causes eutrophication:
  • Excess nitrates/phosphates → algal bloom → oxygen depletion → aquatic life death

Human Health Hazards

• Excess nitrates in drinking water can cause cancer
• Long-term exposure may affect human and animal health

Air & Ecosystem Damage

• Leads to biomagnification of harmful substances
• Contributes to air pollution and climate-related soil degradation

6. Comparison: Fertilizers vs. Manure

Feature	Fertilizers	Manure
Source	Inorganic, factory-made	Organic, natural decomposition
Nutrient Content	High in specific nutrients (NPK)	Low but broad-spectrum
Humus Content	No humus	Adds humus
Soil Impact	Short-term benefits, long-term damage	Long-lasting benefits
Usage Quantity	Small amounts	Large amounts
Environmental Impact	Potentially harmful	Environmentally friendly
Examples	Urea, DAP, NPK	Cow dung, compost, green manure

7. Sustainable Alternatives to Chemical Fertilizers

1. Organic Farming

• Avoids or minimizes use of chemical fertilizers
• Focuses on natural soil fertility and biodiversity

2. Biofertilisers

• Living organisms that improve nutrient availability in the soil
• Examples:
  • Rhizobium (nitrogen-fixing in legume root nodules)
  • Azospirillum and Azotobacter (free-living nitrogen fixers)
  • Blue-green algae (e.g., Anabaena, Nostoc)

3. Green Manure

• Plants like sun hemp or guar are grown and then ploughed into the soil
• Enhances nitrogen and phosphorus levels in soil

4. Integrated Organic Farming

• Zero-waste system: combines crop production with livestock
• Uses manure from cattle and crop waste for compost

5. Crop Rotation & Fallowing

• Leaving the land uncultivated for a season helps restore fertility

Ch-10: Binders and Sweeteners

Binders

Definition: Binders are substances used in the formulation of tablets, capsules, and other pharmaceutical or food products to hold the ingredients together. They ensure the product remains intact during handling, transportation, and consumption. Types of Binders:

1. Natural Binders: Derived from natural sources.
   • Example: Starch, cellulose, gums (e.g., guar gum).
2. Synthetic Binders: Chemically engineered for specific properties.
   • Example: Polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP), hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC).
3. Semi-synthetic Binders: Derived from natural sources but modified chemically.
   • Example: Methylcellulose. Functions:

• Hold particles together and give shape to the product.
• Aid in the uniform distribution of active ingredients.
• Improve the texture and consistency of the product.
• Enhance product stability during storage. Common Uses:
• Pharmaceuticals: In tablets and capsules.
• Food industry: In processed foods (e.g., binders in meat products or baked goods).
• Cosmetics: To improve texture and consistency of products like creams or powders.

Sweeteners

Definition:
Sweeteners are substances that provide a sweet taste to food and beverages. They are used as alternatives to sugar, offering a way to reduce caloric intake, manage blood sugar levels, and cater to individuals with health conditions like diabetes. Natural Sweeteners
These sweeteners are derived from natural sources and are commonly used in households. However, excessive consumption can lead to health issues like obesity, diabetes, and tooth decay.

• Examples:
  • Sucrose (Cane Sugar): The most common sugar used in homes.
  • Glucose: A natural sugar.
  • Lactose: Found in milk. Artificial Sweetening Agents
    These are chemical compounds that provide sweetness without the calories or energy of natural sugars. They are preferred by individuals seeking to control calorie intake or manage conditions like diabetes.
• Examples:
  • Saccharin (O-Sulpho benzimide):
    • Discovered in 1879, it is about 550 times sweeter than cane sugar.
    • Insoluble in water, but its sodium salt is highly soluble.
    • Not metabolized by the body and excreted unchanged in urine.
  • Aspartame:
    • About 100 times sweeter than cane sugar.
    • A methyl ester of a dipeptide formed from aspartic acid and phenylalanine.
    • Not stable at cooking temperatures, making it suitable only for cold foods and soft drinks.
    • Broken down in the body into amino acids and methanol.
  • Alitame:
    • A very high-potency sweetener, about 2000 times sweeter than sugar.
    • More stable at cooking temperatures than aspartame.
    • Difficult to control sweetness when used in food.
  • Sucralose:
    • A trichloro derivative of sucrose.
    • Stable at cooking temperatures and resembles sugar in appearance and taste.
    • About 600 times sweeter than sugar and contains no calories.
    • Expected to become a significant commercial artificial sweetener.

Ch-11: Carbon, its Compounds, and their Domestic and Industrial Applications

Carbon is an exceptionally versatile element that forms the basis for all living organisms and a vast array of materials we use daily. It is found in the Earth's crust as carbonates, hydrogencarbonates, coal, and petroleum (about 0.02%) and in the atmosphere as carbon dioxide (about 0.03%). Despite its relatively low abundance, the importance of carbon is immense.

Unique Properties of Carbon

Carbon's ability to form a vast number of compounds arises from its unique chemical properties:

Catenation

Carbon atoms can bond with each other to form long chains, branched chains, or rings. These structures may include single, double, or triple bonds, resulting in saturated and unsaturated compounds. No other element shows catenation to this extent.

Tetravalency

With a valency of four, carbon can form bonds with four other atoms, including hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, and halogens.

Covalent Bonding

Carbon primarily forms covalent bonds by sharing electrons. As a result, most carbon compounds are poor conductors of electricity and have weak intermolecular forces.

Allotropes of Carbon

Carbon exists in multiple allotropic forms, each with distinct structures and applications:

Diamond

• Hardest known natural substance.
• 3D network of strong covalent bonds.
• High melting point, good conductor of heat, but poor conductor of electricity.
• Used in cutting tools, glass cutting, rock drilling, and jewelry.
• Synthetic diamonds are made for industrial use.

Graphite

• Soft, black, and slippery.
• Excellent conductor of electricity due to delocalized electrons.
• Layers slide over each other, making it a good lubricant.
• Used in dry lubricants, electrodes, and pencil leads.

Fullerenes

• Closed cage-like structures such as buckminsterfullerene (C₆₀).
• Potential applications include superconductors, catalysts, and polymers.

Amorphous Forms

• Coke: Porous, almost pure carbon, used in steel manufacturing and metal extraction.
• Charcoal: Produced by heating wood in the absence of air. Activated charcoal is used for adsorbing impurities and odors.
• Carbon Black: Created by burning hydrocarbons in limited oxygen. Used as a black pigment and filler in tires.

Inorganic Compounds of Carbon

Carbon Monoxide (CO)

• Colorless, odorless, toxic gas from incomplete combustion.
• Used in metallurgy, methanol synthesis, and as fuel.

Carbon Dioxide (CO₂)

• Colorless and odorless, produced by complete combustion.
• Used in carbonated drinks, dry ice (solid CO₂), and as a refrigerant.
• Dissolves in water to form carbonic acid.
• Excess CO₂ contributes to the greenhouse effect.

Carbonates and Hydrogencarbonates

• Found in nature as limestone, marble, dolomite.
• Sodium carbonate (washing soda): Used in glass, soap, and paper industries.
• Sodium hydrogencarbonate (baking soda): Used in baking, cleaning, and industry.

Organic Compounds of Carbon

Organic chemistry is the study of carbon-containing compounds. With over three million known organic compounds, carbon chemistry underpins life and industry.

Hydrocarbons

• Contain only carbon and hydrogen.
• Obtained from petroleum and coal.
• Used as fuels (LPG, petrol, diesel), in polymers, solvents, and drugs.
• Saturated hydrocarbons: Alkanes
• Unsaturated hydrocarbons: Alkenes and alkynes
• Aromatic hydrocarbons: Benzene, toluene, used in dyes and explosives.
• Some are carcinogenic.

Alcohols

• Contain one or more -OH groups.
• Ethanol: Used in beverages, medicine, antiseptics, and as fuel.
• Methanol: Used in plastics, fibers, adhesives.

Aldehydes and Ketones

• Contain a carbonyl group (C=O).
• Used in flavorings, solvents (e.g., acetone), and perfumes.

Carboxylic Acids

• Contain a -COOH group.
• Ethanoic acid (acetic acid): Found in vinegar; used in industry.

Polymers

• Large molecules made of repeating units (monomers).
• Include polythene, PVC, nylon, PET.
• Used in packaging, clothing, electronics.
• Non-biodegradable polymers cause pollution; biodegradable alternatives are being developed.

Soaps and Detergents

• Soaps: Salts of long-chain fatty acids.
• Detergents: Ammonium or sulfonate salts, effective in hard water.
• Used for cleaning, with hydrophobic and hydrophilic ends.

Drugs and Medicines

• Many are organic compounds with therapeutic properties.
• Include antibiotics, antiseptics, analgesics, and antacids.

Dyes, Pigments, and Coatings

• Many dyes are carbon-based.
• Coal tar is a common source.
• Carbon black is a major black pigment.

Solvents

• Carbon compounds like benzene, toluene, acetone, and ethanol are widely used as solvents.

Carbon Compounds in Living Organisms

Carbon forms the basis of biomolecules such as:

• Carbohydrates
• Proteins
• Fats
• Nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) These are essential for life processes and genetic information storage.

Industrial Applications

Carbon and its compounds are essential in many industries:

• Fuel: Coal, petroleum, natural gas.
• Manufacturing: Chemicals, dyes, plastics, synthetic fibers.
• Metallurgy: Coke in extraction of metals; graphite in electrodes.
• Construction: Cement contains carbonates.
• Electronics: Graphite in batteries; silicon (carbon group element) in semiconductors.
• Water Treatment: Activated charcoal, washing soda.
• Bleaching Agents: Sodium carbonate, bleaching powder.

Environmental Considerations

The use of carbon compounds comes with environmental challenges:

• Greenhouse gases: CO₂ emissions from burning fossil fuels contribute to climate change.
• Air Pollution: CO and particulate matter from incomplete combustion.
• Plastic Waste: Non-biodegradable polymers lead to waste accumulation.

Ch-12 Radioactivity: Concepts and Applications

Concept of Radioactivity

Definition:
Radioactivity is the process in which an unstable nucleus spontaneously emits radioactive rays and transforms into a more stable nucleus. Discovery:

• Henri Becquerel (1896) – Discovered spontaneous radiation from uranium salts.
• Marie and Pierre Curie – Discovered radium (Ra) and polonium (Po). Radioactive Elements:
• Natural: Uranium (U), Thorium (Th), Radium (Ra), Polonium (Po)
• Artificial: Plutonium (Pu), Americium (Am), Technetium (Tc)

Types of Radioactive Radiation

Type of Radiation	Structure	Ionization Capacity	Penetration Power	Example
Alpha (α) Rays	Helium nucleus (⁴He₂)	High	Lowest (absorbed in a few cm of air)	Uranium-238 → α emission (²³⁸U₉₂)
Beta (β) Rays	Electron (e⁻) / Positron (e⁺)	Moderate	Stopped by few mm thick aluminum sheet	Carbon-14 → β emission (¹⁴C₆)
Gamma (γ) Rays	High-energy electromagnetic waves	Low	Highest (requires thick lead shield for absorption)	Cobalt-60 → γ emission (⁶⁰Co₂₇)

Laws of Radioactivity

1. Spontaneous Nature:
   Radioactive decay is spontaneous and unaffected by temperature, pressure, or chemical changes.
2. First-Order Reaction Law:
   The rate of decay is proportional to the number of undecayed nuclei (N).
3. Half-Life (T1/2):
   • Time required for half of a radioactive substance to decay.
   • Formula: T1/2 = 0.693 / λ
     (λ = decay constant)
4. Activity (A):
   • A = λN, where:
     • A = activity (decay rate)
     • λ = decay constant
     • N = number of undecayed nuclei
   • Units:
     • Becquerel (Bq) = 1 decay/sec
     • Curie (Ci) = 3.7 × 10¹⁰ decays/sec

Applications of Radioactivity

Field	Application	Details
Medical Field	Cancer treatment	Cobalt-60 gamma rays used in radiotherapy
	Nuclear medicine	Iodine-131 for thyroid; Technetium-99m for imaging bones/heart
Energy Production	Nuclear reactors	Uranium-235, Plutonium-239 for fission energy
	Nuclear fusion	Fusion of Deuterium-Tritium (hydrogen isotopes) for clean energy
Agriculture & Food	Crop improvement	Gamma rays used to mutate seeds for better yield
	Food preservation	Gamma irradiation prolongs shelf life
Carbon Dating	Fossil & relic dating	Carbon-14 estimates age of ancient remains
Industrial Field	Welding & defect testing	Radiography detects structural flaws
	Thickness measurement	Beta radiation measures material thickness
Space Science	Nuclear batteries (RTGs)	Plutonium-238 powers satellites and Mars rovers (e.g., Curiosity)
Environmental Studies	Water source tracking	Tritium (³H) and Radon-222 in groundwater analysis
	Pollution tracing	Isotopes help locate pollution sources

Dangers and Safety Measures of Radioactivity

(i) Sources of Radioactive Pollution:

1. Nuclear accidents – e.g., Chernobyl (1986), Fukushima (2011)
2. Radioactive waste – From nuclear reactors and labs
3. Nuclear weapon testing – Atmospheric contamination

(ii) Health Effects:

• Short-term: Radiation burns, nausea, DNA damage
• Long-term: Cancer, birth defects, genetic mutations

(iii) Safety Measures:

1. Use of lead shielding in labs and equipment
2. Proper disposal of radioactive materials in secure containers
3. Use of radiation detectors and dosimeters by workers
4. Adhering to strict safety protocols and exposure limits

Quick Revision

Ch-1: States of Matter

• Matter: Occupies space, has mass. Made of atoms/molecules.
• 5 States:
  1. Solid: Definite shape & volume. Tightly packed, high forces, vibrate. Rigid, high density, incompressible, slow diffusion. (Ice, iron)
  2. Liquid: Definite volume, no definite shape. Less packed, weaker forces. Flows, surface tension. Incompressible, faster diffusion than solid. (Water, milk)
  3. Gas: No definite shape or volume. Weakest forces. Free motion, fills space. Compressible, very fast diffusion. Laws: Boyle's (PV=const @ T const), Charles' (V$\propto$T @ P const), Gay-Lussac's (P$\propto$T @ V const), Ideal Gas (PV=nRT). (Oxygen, CO2)
  4. Plasma: Ionized gas (+ ions & free e-). Extreme heat/energy. Conducts electricity, sensitive to B fields. Highly energetic. (Sun, stars, lightning)
  5. Bose-Einstein Condensate (BEC): Atoms merge into single quantum state @ extremely low temp ($\approx -{273}^{\circ }$C). Behave like giant particle. (Superfluid He-4)
• State Changes (Phase Changes):
  • Melting (Solid $\to$ Liquid)
  • Evaporation (Liquid $\to$ Gas)
  • Condensation (Gas $\to$ Liquid)
  • Sublimation (Solid $\to$ Gas direct) (Camphor, dry ice)
  • Freezing (Liquid $\to$ Solid)

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Ch-2: Atomic Structure

• Atom: Smallest element unit in reactions. Size $\approx {10}^{-10}$m.
• Subatomic Particles: Electron (e-, -), Proton (p+, +), Neutron (n0, neutral).
• Atomic Models:
  • Dalton (1808): Indivisible sphere. Limit: Couldn't explain subatomic part, isotopes.
  • Thomson (1897): Plum pudding (e- in +sphere). Limit: Couldn't explain stability.
  • Rutherford (1911): Nuclear model (dense +nucleus, e- revolve). Gold Foil exp. Limit: Couldn't explain e- stability, energy levels.
  • Bohr (1913): E- in definite energy levels (orbits K,L,M...). Energy quantized. Absorbs/Emits for jumps. Limit: Failed for multi-electron atoms.
  • Quantum Mechanical: Modern. Wave-particle duality (De Broglie), Uncertainty (Heisenberg), orbitals ($\mathrm{\Psi }$).
• Quantum Numbers: Describe e- state. Orbitals: s (spherical), p (dumbbell), d, f.
• Principles:
  • Pauli Exclusion: Max 2 e-/orbital, opposite spin.
  • Aufbau: Fill lowest energy levels first (1s < 2s < 2p...).
  • Hund's Rule: Fill orbitals of same energy singly before pairing.
• Hydrogen Spectrum: Line spectrum from e- transitions.
  • Balmer: Visible (n=2 to higher).
  • Lyman: UV (n=1 to higher).
  • Paschen, Bracket, Fund: IR.
• De Broglie: $\lambda =h/mv$ (wave-particle duality).
• Heisenberg Uncertainty: $\mathrm{\Delta }x\cdot \mathrm{\Delta }p\ge h/4\pi$ (can't know position & momentum simultaneously precisely).
• Electronic Config: e- arrangement in orbitals (e.g., H: 1s¹).
• Important Facts: Lightest atom (H), Most stable nucleus (Fe), Most electronegative (F), Largest atomic radius (Cs).

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Ch-3: Metals, Non-Metals, and Metalloids

• Metals: Form cations (lose e-), good conductors (heat/elec). Fe, Cu, Al, Au, Ag.
  • Physical: Lustre (shiny), Ductile (wires), Malleable (sheets), Good conductors (Ag, Cu best), High density/MP (W highest MP), Strong.
  • Exceptions: Hg (liquid), Na/K (light, float on water).
  • Chemical: + O₂ $\to$ Basic Oxide. + H₂O $\to$ Hydroxide + H₂. + Acid $\to$ Salt + H₂. + Halogen $\to$ Halide.
  • Uses: Wires (Cu, Al), Construction (Fe), Filaments (W), Planes (Al).
• Non-Metals: Form anions (gain e-), insulators (heat/elec). O₂, N₂, H₂, S, P, Cl₂.
  • Physical: No lustre (except Iodine), Insulators (except Graphite), Soft/Brittle, Low density/MP. States: Gas (O₂, H₂), Solid (C, S), Liquid (Bromine Br₂).
  • Chemical: + O₂ $\to$ Acidic Oxide. + Metal $\to$ Ionic Cmpd. + H₂ $\to$ Hydride.
  • Uses: Respiration (O₂), Fertilizer (N₂), Fuel (H₂), Medicine (S).
• Metalloids: Properties of both metals & non-metals. Si, B, Ge, As, Sb, Te.
  • Properties: Metallic lustre but brittle. Semiconductors. Cond/Insulate depending on conditions/temp.
  • Uses: Chips/Solar (Si), Rocket fuel (B), Transistors (Ge), Pesticides (As).
• Important Facts: Most ductile/malleable (Au), Lightest metal (Li), Hardest non-metal (Diamond), Only liquid metal (Hg), Most reactive metal (Fr), Most reactive non-metal (F₂), Best conductor (Ag).

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Ch-4: Metallurgy - Principles and Methods

• Metallurgy: Science of extracting, purifying, processing metals from minerals.
• Minerals vs Ores: Mineral = Metal compound found naturally. Ore = Mineral from which metal extracted profitably.
  • Ores: Iron (Hematite Fe₂O₃, Magnetite Fe₃O₄), Aluminum (Bauxite Al₂O₃.2H₂O), Zinc (Zinc Blende ZnS, Calamine ZnCO₃).
• Principles: Reactivity Series (more reactive $\to$ more energy), Ellingham Diagram ($\mathrm{\Delta }$G° vs T), Gangue (impurities) + Flux $\to$ Slag (removed).
• Methods:
  1. Concentration (Enrichment): Remove gangue.
     • Gravity Sep: By density (heavy ores like SnO₂).
     • Magnetic Sep: Magnetic ores (Fe₃O₄, MnO₂).
     • Froth Flotation: Sulfide ores (ZnS, CuFeS₂), ore floats with bubbles.
     • Leaching: Chemically dissolve metal. (Bauxite w/ NaOH).
  2. Reduction: Metal from oxide/sulfide/carbonate form.
     • Thermal Decomp: Heat carbonates/hydroxides to oxide (CaCO₃ $\to$ CaO).
     • Reduction by Carbon: Heat oxide w/ C or CO (Fe₂O₃ + CO $\to$ Fe).
  3. Refining (Purification): Remove impurities from extracted metal.
     • Liquation: Low MP metal heated to melt & separate (Sn).
     • Distillation: Volatile metals (Hg, Zn).
     • Electrolytic Refining: Electrolysis (Cu, Al, Ag).
     • Zone Refining: High purity for semiconductors (Si, Ge).
• Specific Extractions:
  • Iron: Blast Furnace (Hematite, Coke, Limestone $\to$ Fe + Slag).
  • Aluminum: Hall-Héroult (Bauxite Electrolysis $\to$ Al + O₂).
  • Copper: Pyrometallurgy (Copper Pyrite $\to$ Cu + SO₂).
• Important Facts: Most abundant metallic ore (Bauxite). Metals by electrolysis (Na, K, Al). Thermite reaction (Fe₂O₃ + Al). Electrolytic refining for (Cu, Al, Ag).

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Ch-5: Important Ores and Alloys

• Important Metals and their Ores: (Key examples)
  • Aluminum (Al): Bauxite (Al₂O₃·2H₂O), Cryolite (Na₃AlF₆)
  • Iron (Fe): Hematite (Fe₂O₃), Magnetite (Fe₃O₄), Siderite (FeCO₃)
  • Copper (Cu): Copper Pyrite (CuFeS₂), Cuprite (Cu₂O), Malachite (CuCO₃·Cu(OH)₂)
  • Zinc (Zn): Zinc Blende (ZnS), Calamine (ZnCO₃), Zincite (ZnO)
  • Gold (Au): Native Gold
  • Silver (Ag): Silver Glance (Argentite Ag₂S), Horn Silver (AgCl)
  • Lead (Pb): Galena (PbS), Cerussite (PbCO₃)
  • Tin (Sn): Cassiterite (Tin Stone SnO₂)
  • Manganese (Mn): Pyrolusite (MnO₂), Rhodochrosite (MnCO₃)
  • Chromium (Cr): Chromite (FeCr₂O₄)
• Alloy: Mixture of 2+ metals (or metal + non-metal) to improve properties.
• Important Alloys & Uses: (Key examples)
  • Stainless Steel: Fe + Cr + Ni. Rust-resistant, Strong. Utensils, Equip.
  • Brass: Cu + Zn. Hard, Shiny. Electrical, Decoration.
  • Bronze: Cu + Sn. Corrosion-resistant. Statues, Coins.
  • Duralumin: Al + Cu + Mg + Mn. Light, Strong. Aircraft, Autos.
  • Nichrome: Ni + Cr + Fe. Heat Resistant. Heating coils.
  • Gun Metal: Cu + Sn + Zn. Strong. Cannons, Pipes.
  • Solder: Pb + Sn. Low MP. Electrical joints.
  • Amalgam: Hg + Other metal. Dentistry.

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Ch-6: Acids, Bases and Salts and pH Scale

• Acids: Produce H+ in water. Sour taste, turn blue litmus red.
  • Types: Natural (Citric), Artificial (HCl, H₂SO₄). Strong (complete ioniz: HCl, H₂SO₄, HNO₃), Weak (partial: CH₃COOH, H₂CO₃). Organic (from bio sources), Inorganic (from minerals).
  • Uses: H₂SO₄ (Batteries, Fert), HNO₃ (Exp, Fert), HCl (Digestion, Cleaning).
• Bases/Alkalis: Produce OH- in water. Bitter taste, turn red litmus blue, slippery.
  • Types: Strong (complete ioniz: NaOH, KOH), Weak (partial: NH₄OH, Mg(OH)₂). Alkalis (soluble in water: NaOH, KOH), Insoluble (Cu(OH)₂).
  • Uses: NaOH (Soap, Paper), KOH (Batteries), Mg(OH)₂ (Antacid).
• Salts: Formed by Acid + Base $\to$ Salt + Water (Neutralization). Crystalline.
  • Types: Neutral (NaCl), Acidic (NaHSO₄), Basic (MgCl(OH)).
  • Uses: NaCl (Food, Preservative), Na₂CO₃ (Washing soda), CaCO₃ (Cement), KNO₃ (Fert, Gunpowder).
• pH Scale: 0-14. Measures Acidity/Alkalinity.
  • pH < 7: Acidic
  • pH = 7: Neutral
  • pH > 7: Alkaline (Basic)
• Indicators: Show pH by color change.
  • Litmus: Acid (Blue to Red), Base (Red to Blue).
  • Methyl Orange: Acid (Red), Base (Yellow).
  • Phenolphthalein: Acid (Colorless), Base (Pink).

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Ch-7 Important Medicines (Synthetic and Natural), Antioxidants and Preservatives

• Medicines: Chemicals preventing/treating/diagnosing disease. Synthetic (lab-made), Natural (plants, etc).
• Drug Classification: Based on effect (Analgesic), action (Antihistamine), structure, target (Proteins).
• Drug-Target:
  • Enzyme: Competitive (block active site), Non-competitive (bind allosteric site).
  • Receptor: Antagonists (block), Agonists (mimic natural).
• Drug Classes:
  • Antacids: Neutralize acid (NaHCO₃), Block secretion (Cimetidine).
  • Antihistamines: Counter histamine (Citrazine, Avil).
  • Tranquilizers: Relieve mental stress. Mild (Chlordiazepoxide), Strong (Equanil), Hypnotic (Barbiturates).
  • Analgesics (Pain relief): Non-narcotic (Aspirin-anti-inflam, Paracetamol), Narcotic (Morphine-strong pain, addictive/toxic).
  • Antimicrobials (Kill/Inhibit microbes): Antibiotics (Treat infections: Penicillin, Ofloxacin), Antiseptics (Apply to skin/wounds: Dettol, Iodine), Disinfectants (Apply to non-living: Chlorine, Phenol).
  • Antibiotics: Narrow (specific bacteria: Penicillin G), Broad (wide range: Chloramphenicol, Ofloxacin). Bactericidal (Kill: Penicillin), Bacteriostatic (Inhibit growth: Erythromycin).
  • Antifertility: Suppress ovulation (Norethindrone, Ethinylestradiol).
• Natural Medicines: Ayurveda (Decoctions, Triphala, Ashwagandha), Unani (Rogan Badam Shirin-mental, Habb-e-Suweida-blood), Homeopathy (Arsenic Album-immunity, Belladonna-fever). Boric acid in Ayurveda for eye/skin.
• Antioxidants: Prevent oxidation of food (prevent rancidity/spoilage) by reacting w/ free radicals.
  • Examples: BHT, BHA (add to fats/oils). SO₂, Sulfites (wine, fruit). Vitamin C. Natural: Salt, Sugar, Oils.
  • Mechanism: More reactive to O₂ than food.
  • Airtight containers & Nitrogen flushing (chips) reduce oxidation.
• Preservatives: Keep food/materials safe longer.
  • Natural: Salt (pickles), Sugar (jams), Lemon juice (fruit).
  • Artificial: Sodium Benzoate (drinks), Potassium Metabisulphite (dry fruit), Sodium Nitrate (meat), Salts of sorbic/propanoic acid.

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Ch-8: Insecticides, Pesticides, Fungicides and Herbicides

• Pesticide: Umbrella term. Kills/controls pests (insects, fungi, weeds, rodents, etc). (Chlorpyrifos, Captan, Glyphosate, Aldrin).
• Insecticide: Kills/repels insects.
  • Types: Contact (DDT, Malathion), Stomach Poison (Zinc Phosphide), Fumigants (Methyl Bromide, Aluminum Phosphide - gas).
  • Uses: Crop/food protection, Disease vectors, Post-harvest loss.
  • Harmful: Env poll, Bioaccumulation, Health risks, Resistance.
• Fungicide: Kills/inhibits fungi/spores.
  • Types: Contact (Copper Sulphate, Sulphur), Systemic (Carbendazim-absorbed by plant), Protective (Bordeaux Mixture).
  • Uses: Control crop fungal infections, Grain storage.
  • Harmful: Groundwater contam, Reduce plant resistance, Resistance strains.
• Herbicide (Weedicide): Kills unwanted plants (weeds).
  • Types: Contact (Paraquat-touch kills), Systemic (2,4-D, Glyphosate-circulates in plant), Selective (Atrazine-targets specific weeds), Non-Selective (Glufosinate-kills all plants).
  • Uses: Weed control (fields, canals), Improve yield, Hard-to-clear areas.
  • Harmful: Health risks (birth defects, endocrine disruptors), Toxic (mammals, aquatic), Reduce soil microbes, Runoff poll.
• Overall Impact: ✅ +ve: Increased yield, Protect crops/food, Soil nutrients (proper use). ⚠️ -ve: Human health risks, Env poll, Biodiversity loss, Bioaccumulation/magnification.
• Precautions: PPE, Integrated Pest Management (IPM - combine methods), Biopesticides/Organic, Use recommended doses/intervals, Farmer education (safe handling/disposal).

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Ch-9 Fertilizers

• Fertilizers: Chemical substances adding essential nutrients (esp. N, P, K) to soil for plant growth.
• Types (by main nutrient):
  • Nitrogenous (N): Leaf/stem growth, chlorophyll. Urea, Ammonium Sulphate, Ammonium Nitrate.
  • Phosphatic (P): Root, flower, fruit dev. Super Phosphate, DAP (Diammonium Phosphate).
  • Potassic (K): Water balance, disease resist, sturdy growth. MOP (Muriate of Potash), SOP (Sulphate of Potash). (Potassium Nitrate - also gunpowder).
  • Complex/Mixed (NPK): Balanced nutrition (fixed ratios, e.g., 17:17:17).
• Nutrient Content: Macro (N, P, K, S), Micro (Cu, Zn, Fe, Mn).
• Benefits: Enhance growth, Higher yield, Quick absorption, Intensive farming, Use on depleted soils.
• Drawbacks/Env Impacts:
  • Soil Degradation: Lose fertility, Kill microbes, Destroy structure, No organic matter.
  • Water Pollution: Runoff $\to$ Eutrophication (algal bloom $\to$ O₂ depletion $\to$ aquatic death).
  • Health Hazards: Nitrates in water $\to$ cancer.
  • Air/Ecosystem: Biomagnification, Air poll, Climate degradation.
• Comparison: Fertilizers vs Manure:
  • Fert: Inorganic/factory, High specific nutrients, No humus, Short-term benefit/long-term damage, Small use, Potentially harmful.
  • Manure: Organic/natural decomp, Low broad nutrients, Adds humus, Long-lasting benefit, Large use, Env friendly.
• Sustainable Alternatives: Organic farming, Biofertilisers (Living organisms: Rhizobium, Azospirillum, Blue-green algae), Green Manure (plough plants into soil), Integrated Organic Farming (zero-waste, combine crops/livestock), Crop Rotation/Fallowing.

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Ch-10: Binders and Sweeteners

• Binders: Substances holding ingredients together in tablets/products. Ensure intactness.
  • Types: Natural (Starch, Cellulose), Synthetic (PVP, HPMC), Semi-synthetic (Methylcellulose).
  • Functions: Hold/Shape, Uniform distribution, Texture, Stability.
  • Uses: Pharmaceuticals (tabs/capsules), Food (meat/baked goods), Cosmetics.
• Sweeteners: Provide sweet taste. Sugar alternatives.
  • Natural: Sucrose (Cane Sugar), Glucose, Lactose (Milk). Calorie source, excessive leads to health issues (obesity, diabetes).
  • Artificial Sweetening Agents: Chemical, sweet w/ NO calories/energy. For calorie control, diabetes.
    • Saccharin: $\approx$ 550x sweeter. Not metabolized. Sodium salt soluble.
    • Aspartame: $\approx$ 100x sweeter. Dipeptide. NOT stable at cooking temps (cold foods/drinks only).
    • Alitame: $\approx$ 2000x sweeter. Very potent. Difficult to control sweetness.
    • Sucralose: $\approx$ 600x sweeter. Trichloro sucrose deriv. STABLE at cooking temps. No calories. Expected significant use.

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Ch-11: Carbon, its Compounds, and their Domestic and Industrial Applications

• Carbon: Basis of all life, versatile. Found as carbonates, coal, petro (0.02%), CO₂ in air (0.03%). Low abundance, HIGH importance.
• Unique Properties:
  • Catenation: Bonds w/ self (chains, rings, single/double/triple). Saturated/Unsaturated. Unique extent.
  • Tetravalency: 4 bonds (H, O, N, S, Halogens).
  • Covalent Bonding: Poor electrical conductors, weak intermolecular forces.
• Allotropes (Different forms):
  • Diamond: Hardest, 3D network, High MP, Good HEAT cond, Poor ELEC cond. Uses: Cutting, Jewelry.
  • Graphite: Soft, layered, Good ELEC cond (deloc e-), Lubricant. Uses: Lubricants, Electrodes, Pencils.
  • Fullerenes: Cage-like (C₆₀), potential uses (superconductors).
  • Amorphous: Coke (steel, metal extr), Charcoal (adsorbent), Carbon Black (pigment, tire filler).
• Inorganic Carbon Cmpds:
  • CO: Toxic gas (incomplete combust). Uses: Metallurgy, Methanol synth, Fuel.
  • CO₂: Gas (complete combust). Uses: Carbonated drinks, Dry ice/Refrig. Forms Carbonic acid in water. Excess $\to$ Greenhouse effect.
  • Carbonates/Hydrogencarbonates: Limestone, Marble. Washing soda (Na₂CO₃) $\to$ glass, soap. Baking soda (NaHCO₃) $\to$ baking, cleaning.
• Organic Carbon Cmpds: Study of C-containing cmpds. MILLIONS known. Underpins life/industry.
  • Hydrocarbons (C+H): From petro/coal. Fuels (LPG, petrol), Polymers, Solvents. Alkanes (saturated), Alkenes/Alkynes (unsaturated), Aromatics (Benzene-dyes, exp, some carcinogenic).
  • Alcohols (-OH): Ethanol (beverage, med, antiseptic, fuel), Methanol (plastics, fibers).
  • Aldehydes/Ketones (C=O): Flavorings, Solvents (Acetone), Perfumes.
  • Carboxylic Acids (-COOH): Ethanoic acid (Vinegar).
  • Polymers: Large repeating units (monomers). Polyethene, PVC, Nylon. Packaging, Clothing. Non-biodegradable waste issue $\to$ Biodegradable needed.
  • Soaps/Detergents: Cleaning (hydrophobic/hydrophilic ends).
  • Drugs/Medicines: Many organic.
  • Dyes/Pigments: Many C-based.
  • Solvents: Benzene, Acetone, Ethanol.
• In Living Organisms: Basis of Biomolecules (Carbs, Proteins, Fats, Nucleic Acids - DNA/RNA).
• Industrial Apps: Fuel, Mfg (chemicals, dyes, plastics), Metallurgy, Construction (Cement), Electronics (Graphite, Silicon), Water Treatment, Bleaching.
• Env Cons: GHGs (CO₂), Air Poll (CO, particulate), Plastic waste (Non-biodegradable).

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Ch-12: Radioactivity: Concepts and Applications

• Radioactivity: Unstable nucleus spontaneously emits radiation $\to$ more stable nucleus.

  • Discovery: Becquerel (Uranium), Curies (Radium, Polonium).
  • Elements: Natural (U, Th, Ra, Po), Artificial (Pu, Am, Tc).

• Types of Radiation:

  Type	Structure	Ionization	Penetration	Shielding	Example (Source)
  Alpha ($\alpha$)	Helium nucleus (⁴He²⁺)	High	Lowest	Paper, few cm air	U-238
  Beta ($\beta$)	e⁻ / e⁺	Moderate	Moderate	Few mm Aluminum	C-14
  Gamma ($\gamma$)	High-energy EM wave	Low	Highest	Thick Lead/Concrete	Co-60

• Laws:

  • Spontaneous: Unaffected by T, P, chem changes.
  • First-Order Decay: Rate $\propto$ No. of undecayed nuclei (N).
  • Half-Life (T₁/₂): Time for half substance to decay. T₁/₂ = 0.693/λ.
  • Activity (A): Decay rate. A=λN. Units: Becquerel (Bq = 1 decay/sec), Curie (Ci = 3.7x10¹⁰ decays/sec).

• Applications:

  • Medical: Cancer therapy (Co-60 $\gamma$), Nuclear Medicine (I-131 thyroid, Tc-99m imaging).
  • Energy: Nuclear Reactors (U-235, Pu-239 Fission), Nuclear Fusion (D-T, potential clean energy).
  • Agri/Food: Crop improvement (mutations by $\gamma$), Food preservation (irradiation).
  • Carbon Dating: C-14 estimates age of organic remains.
  • Industry: Radiography (defect testing), Thickness measurement ($\beta$).
  • Space: Nuclear batteries/RTGs (Pu-238, power satellites/rovers).
  • Env Studies: Water source tracing (³H, Rn-222), Pollution tracing.

• Dangers & Safety:

  • Sources: Nuclear accidents (Chernobyl, Fukushima), Radioactive waste, Weapon testing.
  • Health Effects: Short-term (burns, nausea, DNA damage), Long-term (Cancer, birth defects, mutations).
  • Safety: Lead shielding, Proper disposal (secure containers), Radiation detectors/dosimeters, Strict protocols/limits.

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