Rajasthan

Appearance

Classical Dances of India ​

  • Bharatnatyam: Oldest dance style, developed in Tamil Nadu. Also known as Sadirattam, Dasiyattam, and Agni Nritya.
    • Revival: E. Krishna Iyer and Rukmini Devi Arundale are credited with its revival.
    • Prominent Dancers: Padma Subrahmanyam (Padma Vibhushan 2025), Vyjayanthimala (Padma Vibhushan 2025), T. Balasaraswati (Queen of Bharatnatyam, Padma Vibhushan 1977), Yamini Krishnamurthy (Bharatnatyam & Kuchipudi, Padma Vibhushan 2016, autobiography "A Passion for Dance"), Sonal Mansingh (Bharatnatyam & Odissi, Padma Vibhushan 2003), Leela Samson, Kamala Lakshminarayan, Narthaki Nataraj, Vasundhara.
  • Kathak: Classical dance of Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan. Features three gharanas: Jaipur (Bhanu Maharaj), Lucknow (Ishwari Prasad), and Banaras (Janki Prasad).
    • Prominent Dancers: Pandit Birju Maharaj (Padma Vibhushan 1986), Lachhu Maharaj, Akshansh Maharaj, Shambhu Maharaj (from same family), Kalkaprasad ji, Bindadin Maharaj (gurus).
    • Female Dancers: Sitara Devi, Kumudini Lakhia (Padma Vibhushan 2025, recently passed away), Prerana Shrimali.
  • Kuchipudi: Classical dance of Andhra Pradesh. Also known as Thaal Nritya and Matka Nritya.
    • Prominent Dancers: Yamini Krishnamurthy, Vempati Chinna Satyam, Raja Reddy, Radha Reddy, Shobha Naidu, Indrani Rahman.
  • Kathakali: Classical dance of Kerala. Known for expressive eyebrow movements and face painting (red, green, black).
    • Prominent Dancers: V. Narayanan Menon, Guru Gopinath, Rita Ganguly, Milena Salvini (Italy), Light Foot (Australia), Mrinalini Sarabhai (also Bharatnatyam).
  • Mohiniyattam: Classical dance of Kerala. Depicts the story of Lord Vishnu defeating Bhasmasura. Known for 'Lasya' (beauty) form.
    • Founder: Kalyani Amma.
    • Prominent Dancers: Kanak Rele, Kalamandalam Kshemavathy, Jayaprabha Menon.
  • Odissi: Classical dance from Odisha, originally performed in temples.
    • Prominent Dancers: Kelucharan Mohapatra (first Odia to receive Padma Vibhushan 2000), Sonal Mansingh, Sanjukta Panigrahi.
    • Recent Death: Mayadhar Raut.
  • Manipuri: Classical dance from Manipur. Incorporates 'Pung Cholom' (drum dance) and 'Thang-Ta' (martial art dance).
    • Prominent Dancers: Jhaveri Sisters (Ranjana, Darshana), Guru Bipin Singh, Elbino Devi.
    • Historical Note: Rabindranath Tagore promoted this dance at Shantiniketan.
  • Sattriya: Latest classical dance of India (recognized in 2000), from Assam.
    • Founder: Srimanta Sankaradeva.
    • Features: Accompanied by 'Borgeet' (songs) and performed based on Sankaradeva's 'Ankiya Nat' (plays).
    • Prominent Dancers: Indira P. Bora, Jatin Goswami.

Classical Languages of India ​

  • Constitutional Basis: Part 17, Articles 343-351. 8th Schedule originally had 14 languages, now 22.
  • Definition: Languages with ancient roots not derived from other languages.
  • Current Status: 11 Classical Languages.
  • Timeline:
    • 2004: Tamil
    • 2005: Sanskrit
    • 2008: Telugu, Kannada
    • 2013: Malayalam
    • 2014: Odia
    • 2024 (October): Marathi, Prakrit, Pali, Assamese, Bengali (added five new languages, making total 11).

UNESCO World Heritage Sites in India ​

  • India ranks 6th globally for UNESCO World Heritage Sites.
  • Total Sites: 44 (36 Cultural, 7 Natural, 1 Mixed).
  • Mixed Site: Khangchendzonga National Park (Sikkim).
  • Key Sites and Years of Inclusion:
    • 1983: Ajanta Caves (Maharashtra), Ellora Caves (Maharashtra), Taj Mahal (Uttar Pradesh), Agra Fort (Uttar Pradesh).
    • 1984: Konark Sun Temple (Odisha) - also called Black Pagoda, built by Ganga dynasty.
    • 1985: Keoladeo National Park (Bharatpur), Kaziranga National Park (Assam).
    • 1986: Fatehpur Sikri (Agra), Khajuraho Group of Monuments (Madhya Pradesh) - built by Chandela rulers, in Panchayatana style.
    • 1989: Sanchi Stupa (Madhya Pradesh).
    • 1993: Qutub Minar (Delhi).
    • 2007: Red Fort Complex (Delhi).
    • 2014: Rani ki Vav (Gujarat) - built by Solanki dynasty, depicted on ₹100 note.
    • 2016: Khangchendzonga National Park (Sikkim) - India's only mixed heritage site.
    • 2017: Historic City of Ahmedabad (Gujarat) - India's first city.
    • 2019: Jaipur City (Rajasthan) - India's second city.
    • 2021: Kakatiya Rudreswara (Ramappa) Temple (Telangana), Dholavira (Gujarat) - Harappan site, divided into three parts.
    • 2023: Santiniketan (West Bengal) - built by Rabindranath Tagore, Group of Hoysala Temples (Karnataka).
    • 2024: Charaideo Maidams (Assam) - Ahom Dynasty burial mounds.
    • 2025: Maratha Military Landscape (Maharashtra & Tamil Nadu) - includes Jinji Fort in Tamil Nadu.

UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage (India) ​

  • Total Sites: 15.
  • Notable Inclusions:
    • 2010: Kalbelia Dance (Rajasthan), Chhau Dance (West Bengal, Jharkhand, Odisha).
    • 2016: Yoga.
    • 2021: Durga Puja (West Bengal).
    • 2023: Garba Dance (Gujarat).

Important Festivals of India ​

  • Uttar Pradesh: Kajli Mahotsav, Kalinjar Mahotsav, Bateshwar Mela, Kumbh Mela (Prayagraj, Nashik, Haridwar, Ujjain - started by Harshavardhan).
  • Chhattisgarh: Hareli Festival, Madai Festival, Cherchera Festival, Bastar Dussehra.
  • Assam: Ambubachi Mela (Kamakhya Temple), Bihu Festival (Magh, Rangoli), Me-Dam-Me-Phi (in memory of ancestors), Jonbeel Mela (barter system), Wanchuwa Festival.
  • Nagaland: Hornbill Festival (Festival of Festivals, Dec 1-10, started Dec 1 as Nagaland Foundation Day 1963), Yamse Festival.
  • Tripura: Kharchi Puja, Garia Puja, Ker Utsav, Hojagiri.
  • Jharkhand: Sarhul Festival, Tusu Parv, Shravani Mela, Fagua Festival, Bhagta Parv, Sohrai Festival (Santhal tribe).
  • Uttarakhand: Harela Festival, Phool Dei Festival, Makhan (Andoori) Festival.
  • Rajasthan: Gangaur (Jaipur), Camel Festival (Bikaner), Marwar Festival (Jodhpur), Kapil Muni Festival, Pushkar Animal Fair.
  • Karnataka: Kambala (buffalo race in mud), Kelpood, Ugadi (New Year, also Andhra Pradesh), Mysore Dussehra, Karaga Festival.
  • Haryana: Surajkund Mela (Faridabad - world's largest handicraft fair), Gita Mahotsav (Kurukshetra).
  • Gujarat: Madhavpur Ghed Mela, Uttarayan (Kite Festival), Rann Mahotsav, Modhera Utsav.
  • Kerala: Onam, Makaravilakku (Sabarimala Temple), Attukal Pongala (largest women's gathering), Vishu (Malayalam New Year), Nishagandhi Festival, Kalpathi Rath Mahotsav, Thrissur Pooram, Vallam Kali (Nehru Boat Race).
  • Madhya Pradesh: Nimadi Mirch Mahotsav, Khajuraho Festival, Tansen Festival (Gwalior), Mandu Festival, Bhagoria Festival, Ghadalya Festival.
  • Andhra Pradesh: Flamingo Festival, Ugadi.
  • Sikkim: Saga Dawa Festival (also Arunachal Pradesh), Losar Festival, Sonam Losar, Sakewa Festival, Bumchu Festival.
  • Meghalaya: Wangala Festival (100 Drum Festival), Cherry Blossom Festival (Shillong), Nekrom Festival, Behdeinkhlam Festival.
  • Himachal Pradesh: Halda Festival, Sajo Festival, Minjar Mela, Nalwari Mela.
  • Manipur: Lai Haraoba (Merry Makings of the Gods), Sangai Festival, Shirui Lily Festival.
  • Odisha: Rath Utsav (Puri), Bali Yatra, Nuakhai (new rice harvest), Raja Parba (3-day menstrual cycle of Mother Earth), Dhanu Yatra (Krishna-Kansa story).
  • Punjab: Baisakhi, Lohri, Hola Mohalla.
  • Telangana: Bonalu, Bathukamma (flower festival), Medaram Jatra, Alai Balai, Sammakka Saralamma Jatra.
  • West Bengal: Gangasagar Mela, Poila Boishakh (Bengali New Year), Poush Sankranti, Jagadhatri Puja, Durga Puja.
  • Tamil Nadu: Thaipusam Festival, Pongal, Jallikattu (part of Pongal), Puthandu (Tamil New Year), Natyanjali Utsav.
  • Bihar: Chhath Puja, Sonpur Mela (Asia's largest cattle fair), Bihula, Karma, Sham Chakeva Festival.
  • Mizoram: Anthurium Festival, Chapchar Kut (Bamboo Dance/Chiraw), Mim Kut Festival.
  • Maharashtra: Kala Ghoda Kala Mahotsav, Gudi Padwa, Ganesh Festival, Shivaji Mahotsav.
  • Arunachal Pradesh: Saga Dawa Festival, Losar Festival, Dree Festival, Solung Festival.
  • Delhi (UT): Drone Festival, Basant Festival, Happiness Festival.
  • Jammu & Kashmir (UT): Navreh Festival, Kheer Bhawani Mela, Tulip Festival.
  • Ladakh (UT): Hemis Festival, Losar Festival, Domoscho Festival.
  • Goa: Chikhal Kalo Festival (mud festival), Sao Joao Festival, Shigmo Festival.

Musical Instruments and Maestros ​

  • Sarangi: Pandit Ram Narayan (Padma Vibhushan 2005).
  • Sitar: Pandit Ravi Shankar (Bharat Ratna 1999, first Indian to win Grammy), Uma Shankar Mishra, Annapurna Devi, Anoushka Shankar, Ustad Vilayat Khan.
  • Shehnai: Ustad Bismillah Khan (Bharat Ratna 2001), Bageshwari Kamar.
  • Veena: S. Balachandran, Vishwa Mohan Bhatt (Mohan Veena), Asad Ali Khan (Rudra Veena), Badruddin Dagar.
  • Flute (Bansuri): Pannalal Ghosh, Hariprasad Chaurasia, Rajendra Kulkarni, Rajesh Chaurasia.
  • Tabla: Ustad Zakir Hussain (Padma Vibhushan 2023, Grammy 2024), Kishan Maharaj, Latif Maharaj, Alla Rakha Khan, Pandit Jasraj.
  • Sarod: Ustad Allauddin Khan (Padma Vibhushan 1971), Ali Akbar Khan, Amjad Ali Khan, Rajeev Taranath (recently passed away).
  • Santoor: Bhajan Sopori, Pandit Shivkumar Sharma.
  • Guitar: Brijbhushan Kabra.
  • Harmonium: Purushottam Walawalkar.
  • Violin: L. Subramaniam (Padma Vibhushan 2025), Ganesh Rajagopalan.

Important Awards and Fields ​

  • Bharat Ratna: Highest civilian award (started 1954). First recipients: S. Radhakrishnan, C.V. Raman, C. Rajagopalachari.
  • Jnanpith Award: Highest literary award (started 1965). First recipient: G. Sankara Kurup (Malayalam).
  • Param Vir Chakra: Highest gallantry award (started 1950). First recipient: Major Somnath Sharma.
  • Dadasaheb Phalke Award: Highest film award (started 1969). First recipient: Devika Rani.
  • Major Dhyan Chand Khel Ratna Award: Highest sports award (started 1991-92 as Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna). First recipient: Viswanathan Anand. Prize money: ₹25 lakh.
  • Saraswati Samman: Literary award by Birla Foundation (started 1991-92). First recipient: Harivansh Rai Bachchan.
  • Arjuna Award: Sports award (started 1961). Prize money: ₹15 lakh.
  • Maulana Abul Kalam Azad Trophy: Awarded to universities (started 1956-57).
  • Dronacharya Award: For coaches (started 1985). Prize money: ₹15 lakh.
  • Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Prize: For Science & Technology.
  • B.C. Roy Award: For medicine.
  • Gauri Lankesh Samman/Chameli Devi Jain Award: For journalism.
  • Pulitzer Prize: For journalism (started 1917 by USA).
  • Grammy Awards: For music.
  • Emmy Awards: For television.
  • Col. C.K. Nayudu Lifetime Achievement Award: For cricket.
  • Ramon Magsaysay Award: "Asia's Nobel Prize" (Manila, Philippines).
  • Pritzker Architecture Prize: For architecture.
  • Abel Prize: For mathematics.

National Organizations of India ​

  • ISRO (Indian Space Research Organisation):
    • Formation: August 15, 1969.
    • First Chairman: Vikram Sarabhai.
    • 10th Chairman: S. Somanath (book: "Sher Jisne Chandni Pi Li").
    • 11th Chairman: V. Narayanan (current, though lecturer states 11th is V. Narayanan and previously stated 10th is S. Somanath). Note: S. Somanath is the current chairman.
    • Headquarters: Bengaluru.
    • First Satellite Launch: Aryabhata (April 19, 1975 from Russia using Cosmos rocket).
    • Launching Centers: Satish Dhawan Space Centre (Sriharikota), Kulasekharapattinam (for small rockets in Tamil Nadu).
    • Key Missions: Chandrayaan-1 (PSLV C-11), Chandrayaan-3 (LVM3 M4 - launched July 14, landed Aug 23, landing site "Shiv Shakti Point", Aug 23 observed as National Space Day, Lander Vikram, Rover Pragyan), Mangalyaan (PSLV C-25), AstroSat (PSLV C-30), Aditya L1 (PSLV C-57, for Sun), NISAR (NASA-ISRO SAR, GSLC F16), SPADEX (PSLV C-31), NVS-02 (navigation, GSLV F15).
    • Future Mission: Gaganyaan (human spaceflight).
    • Indian GPS: NavIC.
  • DRDO (Defence Research and Development Organisation):
    • Formation: January 1, 1958.
    • Motto: Balasya Mulam Vigyanam (Strength's Origin is Science).
    • Headquarters: Delhi.
    • First Head: Daulat Kothari.
    • Current Head: Samir Kamat.
    • Launching Center: Wheeler Island (APJ Abdul Kalam Island, Odisha).
    • IGMDP (Integrated Guided Missile Development Program): Started 1983 by APJ Abdul Kalam, completed 2008. Developed Prithvi, Agni, Trishul, Nag, Akash missiles.
  • RBI (Reserve Bank of India):
    • Formation: April 1, 1935 (on recommendations of Young Hilton Commission/Royal Commission, under 1934 Act).
    • Initial Capital: ₹5 crore.
    • Initial Headquarters: Kolkata, shifted to Mumbai in 1937.
    • Nationalization: January 1, 1949.
    • First Governor: Osborne Smith.
    • First Indian Governor: C.D. Deshmukh.
    • Current Governor: Sanjay Malhotra (26th). (Note: Shaktikanta Das is the current, 25th Governor).
    • Logo: Palm tree and Royal Bengal Tiger.
  • NABARD (National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development):
    • Formation: July 12, 1982 (on recommendations of Shivraman Committee).
    • Headquarters: Mumbai.
    • Current Head: K.V. Shaji.
  • SIDBI (Small Industries Development Bank of India):
    • Formation: April 2, 1990.
    • Headquarters: Lucknow.
  • IRDAI (Insurance Regulatory and Development Authority of India):
    • Formation: Under 1999 Act.
    • Headquarters: Hyderabad.
    • Committees: Malhotra Committee (for insurance), Narasimhan Committee (for banking), Chelliah Committee (for tax reforms).
  • SEBI (Securities and Exchange Board of India):
    • Formation: 1988, statutory body in 1992 Act. Regulates share market.
    • First Head: S.A. Dube.
    • First Female Head: Madhabi Puri Buch.
    • Current Head: Tuhin Kanta Pandey (Note: Madhabi Puri Buch is the current head).
    • Bombay Stock Exchange (BSE): Established 1875, Asia's oldest. Index: Sensex.
    • National Stock Exchange (NSE): Established 1992. Index: Nifty.
  • BCCI (Board of Control for Cricket in India):
    • Formation: 1928.
    • Headquarters: Wankhede Stadium, Mumbai.
    • First President: Grand Govan.
    • Current President: Mithun Manhar (Note: Roger Binny is the current President).
    • Current Secretary: Devjeet Sethi. (Note: Jay Shah is the current secretary).
    • Men's Coach: Gautam Gambhir (Note: Rahul Dravid is the current head coach).
    • Asian Cricket Council Head: Mohsin Naqvi (Note: Jay Shah is the current ACC President).
    • Women's Coach: Amol.
  • FSSAI (Food Safety and Standards Authority of India):
    • Act: 2006.
    • Formation: 2008.
    • Headquarters: Delhi.
  • BARC (Bhabha Atomic Research Centre):
    • Formation: 1954.
    • Headquarters: Trombay.
    • Father of Nuclear Power in India: Dr. Homi J. Bhabha.
    • Nuclear Plants: Kakrapar (Gujarat), Tarapur (Maharashtra), Kaiga (Karnataka), Narora (UP), Rawatbhata (Rajasthan), Kudankulam & Kalpakkam (Tamil Nadu).
  • CSIR (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research):
    • Formation: 1942.
    • President: Prime Minister.
    • Founder: Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar.
    • First Female Director General: Nallathamby Kalaiselvi.
    • Headquarters: Delhi.
  • LIC (Life Insurance Corporation of India):
    • Act: 1956.
    • Headquarters: Mumbai.
  • GST Council:
    • Recommendations: Vijay Kelkar Committee.
    • Act: 101st Constitutional Amendment Act, 2016.
    • Implementation: July 1, 2017.
    • Nature: Indirect tax, concurrent list.
    • Constitutional Articles: Article 246A (for GST), Article 279A (for GST Council).
    • Current Rates: 5%, 18%, 40% (Next Generation GST Reforms).
    • Head: Finance Minister.
  • NCERT (National Council of Educational Research and Training):
    • Formation: 1961.
    • Headquarters: New Delhi.
    • Head: Dinesh Saklani.
    • Status: Deemed University.
  • UGC (University Grants Commission):
    • Formation: 1956 by Maulana Azad.
    • Headquarters: Delhi.
  • ASI (Archaeological Survey of India):
    • Formation: 1861.
    • Founder: Alexander Cunningham.
  • IOA (Indian Olympic Association):
    • Formation: 1927 by Sir Dorabji Tata.
    • Headquarters: Delhi.
    • First Female Head: P.T. Usha (Payyoli Express).

Important Days ​

  • January:
    • 4 Jan: World Braille Day
    • 9 Jan: Pravasi Bharatiya Divas (Gandhi's return from South Africa 1915)
    • 10 Jan: World Hindi Day (First World Hindi Conference Nagpur 1975)
    • 12 Jan: National Youth Day (Swami Vivekananda's Birthday)
    • 15 Jan: Army Day
    • 23 Jan: Parakram Divas (Subhas Chandra Bose's Birthday)
    • 24 Jan: National Girl Child Day
    • 25 Jan: National Tourism Day, National Voters' Day (Election Commission of India established 1950, Sukumar Sen first CEC)
    • 26 Jan: Republic Day (Purna Swaraj Day 1930)
    • 30 Jan: National Martyrs' Day (Mahatma Gandhi's Assassination)
  • February:
    • 2 Feb: World Wetland Day (Ramsar Convention 1971)
    • 4 Feb: World Cancer Day
    • 13 Feb: National Women's Day, World Radio Day (Sarojini Naidu's Birthday)
    • 14 Feb: Pulwama Martyrs' Day
    • 20 Feb: World Social Justice Day
    • 21 Feb: International Mother Language Day
    • 28 Feb: National Science Day
  • March:
    • 3 Mar: World Wildlife Day
    • 4 Mar: National Security Day
    • 8 Mar: International Women's Day
    • 15 Mar: World Consumer Rights Day (National Consumer Day 24 Dec)
    • 20 Mar: World Happiness Day, World Sparrow Day
    • 21 Mar: World Forestry Day, Glacier Conservation Day
    • 22 Mar: World Water Day
    • 23 Mar: Martyrs' Day (Bhagat Singh, Rajguru, Sukhdev 1931), World Meteorological Day
    • 24 Mar: World TB Day (Robert Koch discoverer, 2025 target for TB elimination)
  • April:
    • 7 Apr: World Health Day
    • 13 Apr: Jallianwala Bagh Massacre Day (1919)
    • 14 Apr: Ambedkar Jayanti (Equality Day)
    • 17 Apr: World Hemophilia Day
    • 18 Apr: World Heritage Day
    • 21 Apr: Civil Service Day
    • 22 Apr: World Earth Day
    • 23 Apr: World Book and Copyright Day
    • 24 Apr: National Panchayati Raj Day (73rd Constitutional Amendment 1993)
    • 25 Apr: World Malaria Day
  • May:
    • 1 May: World Labour Day
    • 3 May: World Press Freedom Day
    • 8 May: World Red Cross Day
    • 11 May: National Technology Day (Operation Shakti, Pokhran II 1998)
    • 12 May: World Nurse Day (Florence Nightingale's Birthday)
    • 22 May: International Biodiversity Day
    • 25 May: World Football Day
    • 31 May: World No Tobacco Day
  • June:
    • 1 June: World Milk Day (National Milk Day 26 Nov)
    • 5 June: World Environment Day (UNEP established 1972)
    • 7 June: World Food Safety Day
    • 14 June: World Blood Donor Day
    • 21 June: International Yoga Day (First celebrated 2015)
    • 23 June: International Olympic Day (Olympic Committee established 1894)
    • 25 June: Constitution Assassination Day (Third National Emergency 1975)
    • 29 June: National Statistics Day (P.C. Mahalanobis's Birthday)
  • July:
    • 1 July: GST Day (GST implemented 2017), National Doctor's Day
    • 11 July: World Population Day (5 billion population 1987)
    • 12 July: International Hope Day
    • 19 July: Bank Nationalization Day (14 banks 1969)
    • 26 July: Kargil Vijay Diwas (1999)
    • 28 July: World Hepatitis Day
    • 29 July: International Tiger Day (St. Petersburg Declaration 2010)
  • August:
    • 7 Aug: National Handloom Day
    • 9 Aug: World Tribal Day
    • 12 Aug: International Youth Day, World Elephant Day
    • 15 Aug: Independence Day
    • 23 Aug: National Space Day (Chandrayaan-3 landing)
    • 29 Aug: National Sports Day (Major Dhyan Chand's Birthday)
  • September:
    • 5 Sep: National Teachers' Day
    • 8 Sep: International Literacy Day
    • 14 Sep: National Hindi Day
    • 15 Sep: National Engineers' Day, Democracy Day
    • 16 Sep: World Ozone Conservation Day (Montreal Protocol 1987)
    • 21 Sep: World Peace Day
    • 23 Sep: Ayurveda Day
    • 27 Sep: World Tourism Day
    • 28 Sep: World Rabies Day (Hydrophobia Day)
    • 29 Sep: World Heart Day
  • October:
    • 2 Oct: International Day of Non-Violence (Gandhi Jayanti)
    • 5 Oct: World Teachers' Day
    • 8 Oct: Indian Air Force Day
    • 9 Oct: World Post Day
    • 11 Oct: International Girl Child Day
    • 15 Oct: World Students' Day
    • 16 Oct: World Food Day (FAO established 1945)
    • 17 Oct: International Day for the Eradication of Poverty
    • 20 Oct: World Statistics Day
    • 24 Oct: UNO Day (UN established 1945), World Polio Day
    • 31 Oct: National Unity Day
  • November:
    • 3 Nov: Biosphere Day
    • 7 Nov: National Cancer Awareness Day
    • 9 Nov: National Legal Services Day (NALSA established 1995)
    • 14 Nov: National Children's Day, Diabetes Day
    • 15 Nov: Janjatiya Gaurav Divas (Birsa Munda Jayanti)
    • 21 Nov: World Television Day
    • 26 Nov: National Law Day/Constitution Day, National Milk Day (Verghese Kurien's Birthday)
  • December:
    • 1 Dec: World AIDS Day
    • 2 Dec: National Pollution Control Day, World Computer Literacy Day
    • 4 Dec: Indian Navy Day
    • 5 Dec: World Soil Day
    • 10 Dec: International Human Rights Day (Human Rights Declaration 1948)
    • 14 Dec: National Energy Conservation Day
    • 21 Dec: World Meditation Day
    • 22 Dec: National Mathematics Day (Ramanujan's Birthday)
    • 23 Dec: National Farmers' Day (Chaudhary Charan Singh's Birthday)
    • 24 Dec: National Consumer Day
    • 25 Dec: Good Governance Day (Atal Bihari Vajpayee's Birthday)
    • 26 Dec: Veer Bal Diwas

Sports Personalities and Autobiographies ​

  • Mirza, Sania: "Ace Against Odds"
  • Singh, Yuvraj: "The Test of My Life"
  • Ganguly, Sourav: "A Century Is Not Enough"
  • Tendulkar, Sachin: "Playing It My Way" (Master Blaster)
  • Kohli, Virat: "Driven"
  • Gilchrist, Adam: "Two Colours"
  • Usha, P.T.: "Golden Girl"
  • Dhyan Chand, Major: "Goal" (Hockey wizard)
  • Anand, Viswanathan: "Mind Master"
  • Kom, Mary: "Unbreakable"
  • Nehwal, Saina: "Playing to Win"
  • Singh, Milkha: "The Race of My Life" (Flying Sikh)
  • Afridi, Shahid: "Game Changers"
  • Dev, Kapil: "The Straight from the Heart" (Haryana Hurricane)
  • Malik, Sakshi: "Witness"
  • Muralitharan, Muttiah: "800"
  • Warne, Shane: "No Spin"
  • Raina, Suresh: "Believe"
  • Ashwin, Ravichandran: "I Have The Street"
  • Woods, Tiger: "How I Play Golf"
  • Gibbs, Herschelle: "To the Point"
  • Dhawan, Shikhar: "Dahwan" (Gabbar Singh)
  • Sharma, Rohit: (Hitman)
  • Yadav, Kuldeep: (Chinaman)
  • (Unnamed): MS Dhoni (Thala - jersey number 7)
  • Gavaskar, Sunil: (Little Master)

Indian History - Ancient to Modern ​

Magadha Empire Dynasties (in order) ​

  • Haryanka Dynasty:
    • Founder: Bimbisara (called Shronika in Jainism).
    • Successor: Ajatashatru (first 'Patrihanta' - killer of father).
      • First Buddhist Council at Rajgir during his reign.
    • Udayin: Established Pataliputra (Kusumpura/Patna) as capital.
  • Shishunaga Dynasty:
    • Founder: Shishunaga.
    • Kalasoka: Second Buddhist Council at Vaishali during his reign.
  • Nanda Dynasty:
    • Founder: Mahapadma Nanda.
    • Last Ruler: Dhanananda (defeated by Chanakya/Kautilya).
  • Maurya Dynasty:
    • Founder: Chandragupta Maurya (with help of Chanakya/Kautilya).
    • Bindusara: Called Amitraghat (destroyer of enemies).
    • Ashoka: Governor of Avanti.
      • Kalinga War (261 BCE) against King Padmanabha of Kalinga (capital Toshali, on Daya River). Adopted Dhamma policy.
      • 14 Major Rock Edicts (1st condemns animal sacrifice, 13th mentions Kalinga War). 7 Pillar Edicts.
      • Edicts discovered by T. Panthaler, deciphered by James Prinsep (1837).
    • Last Ruler: Brihadratha.
    • Officer: Samaharta (revenue officer).

Books and Authors (Ancient & Medieval India) ​

  • Arthashastra: Kautilya.
  • Mudrarakshasa: Vishakhadatta.
  • Ashtadhyayi: Panini (first Sanskrit grammar).
  • Kadambari: Banabhatta.
  • Harshacharita: Banabhatta.
  • Buddhacharita: Ashwaghosha.
  • Ratnavali: Harshavardhana.
  • Priyadarshika: Harshavardhana.
  • Nagananda: Harshavardhana.
  • Amuktamalyada: Krishnadevaraya (Telugu).
  • Mrichchhakatika: Shudraka.
  • Rajatarangini: Kalhana (history of Jammu and Kashmir).
  • Karpuramanjari: Rajashekhara.
  • Gita Govinda: Jayadeva.
  • Devichandraguptam: Vishakhadatta.
  • Panchasiddhantika: Varahamihira.
  • Brihat Samhita: Varahamihira.
  • Lilavati: Bhaskara II.
  • Abhijnanasakuntalam, Kumarasambhava, Raghuvamsa, Ritusamhara, Malavikagnimitram, Meghadutam: Kalidasa.
  • Milinda Panho: Nagasena.
  • Kiratarjuniyam: Bharavi.
  • Kamasutra: Vatsyayana.
  • Surya Siddhanta: Aryabhatta.
  • Raja Martanda: Raja Bhoja.
  • Prithviraj Raso: Chand Bardai.
  • Nitisara: Kamandaka.
  • Charudatta: Mahakavi Bhasa.
  • Panchatantra: Vishnu Sharma.
  • Naishadhiya Charita: Sriharsha.
  • Satyarth Prakash: Swami Dayananda Saraswati.
  • Gulamgiri: Mahatma Jyotiba Phule.
  • Indica: Megasthenes.
  • Rehla (Rihla): Ibn Battuta (from Morocco).
  • Akbarnama/Ain-i-Akbari: Abul Fazal.
  • Nu Sipihr, Tughlaqnama, Ashiqa, Khazain-ul-Futuh: Amir Khusrau.
  • Tahqiq-i-Hind/Kitab-ul-Hind: Al-Biruni.

Books and Authors (Modern India) ​

  • Essays on Gita: Aurobindo Ghosh.
  • The Golden Threshold, The Song of India: Sarojini Naidu.
  • Poverty and Un-British Rule in India: Dadabhai Naoroji.
  • India Divided: Dr. Rajendra Prasad.
  • My Experiments with Truth, Hind Swaraj: Mahatma Gandhi.
  • Indian Struggle: Subhas Chandra Bose.
  • Gita Rahasya, The Arctic Home in the Vedas: Bal Gangadhar Tilak.
  • Bahishkrit Bharat, Annihilation of Caste: Dr. B.R. Ambedkar (journal: Mooknayak).
  • The Discovery of India, Glimpses of World History: Jawaharlal Nehru.
  • Bandi Jeevan: Sachindra Nath Sanyal.
  • Neel Darpan: Dinabandhu Mitra.
  • Bharat Bharati: Maithili Sharan Gupt.

Historic Events and Personalities ​

  • Bengal Partition (1905): During Curzon's time. Led to Swadeshi Movement (Aug 7, 1905, Kolkata Town Hall). Annulled in 1911 based on Arundel Committee recommendations.
  • Komagata Maru Incident (1914): Japanese ship, led by Gurditt Singh, denied entry into Canada.
  • Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (April 13, 1919): General Dyer ordered firing. Against the arrest of Saifuddin Kitchlew. Rabindranath Tagore returned his 'Knighthood' title. Hunter Commission was formed.
  • Gandhi-Irwin Pact (March 5, 1931):
  • Dandi March (March 12, 1930 - April 6, 1930): From Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi, against salt tax.
  • Poona Pact (September 1932): Between Mahatma Gandhi and Dr. B.R. Ambedkar at Yerwada Jail, Pune.
  • Cabinet Mission (March 1946): Pathic Lawrence, Alexander, Stafford Cripps. Proposed 389 seats (93 for princely states by nomination). Rejected demand for separate Pakistan.
  • Forward Bloc (1939): Founded by Subhas Chandra Bose.
  • Gadar Party (1913): Founded by Lala Hardayal and Sohan Singh Bhakna in San Francisco, USA.
  • Swaraj Party (1923): Founded by Chittaranjan Das and Motilal Nehru.
  • Servants of India Society (1905): Founded by Gopal Krishna Gokhale.
  • Prarthana Samaj (1867): Founded by Mahadev Govind Ranade, Atmaram Pandurang.
  • Brahmo Samaj (1828): Founded by Raja Ram Mohan Roy. (Also Atmiya Sabha 1814).
  • Arya Samaj (1875): Founded by Swami Dayanand Saraswati.
  • Satyashodhak Samaj (1873): Founded by Mahatma Jyotiba Phule (Maharashtra).
  • Poona Sarvajanik Sabha: Founded by Mahadev Govind Ranade.
  • Indian National Congress (INC) (1885): Founded by A.O. Hume. Viceroy: Lord Dufferin.
  • Tattvabodhini Sabha (1839): Founded by Debendranath Tagore.
  • Ramakrishna Mission (1897): Founded by Swami Vivekananda.
  • Khana Abdul Ghaffar Khan (Frontier Gandhi): Founded Khudai Khidmatgar (Red Shirt movement) in 1929.
  • Dadabhai Naoroji: Editor of "Rast Goftar". First to estimate national income. Three-time INC president (1886, 1893, 1906 - first time 'Swaraj' word used). Proponent of 'Drain of Wealth' theory.
  • William Jones: Founded Asiatic Society in 1784.

Indian National Congress Sessions ​

  • 1885 (Bombay): W.C. Banerjee (first president), 72 delegates.
  • 1886 (Calcutta): Dadabhai Naoroji (president, also 1893, 1906 where 'Swaraj' was first used).
  • 1887 (Madras): Badruddin Tyabji (first Muslim president).
  • 1888 (Allahabad): George Yule (first European president).
  • 1889 (Bombay): William Wedderburn (biographer of A.O. Hume).
  • 1896 (Calcutta): Rahimtullah M. Sayani (President), "Vande Mataram" sung for the first time.
  • 1905 (Varanasi): Gopal Krishna Gokhale (President), Swadeshi Movement started.
  • 1907 (Surat): Rash Behari Ghosh (President), Congress split ( नरम दल & गरम दल).
  • 1911 (Calcutta): Bishan Narayan Dhar (President), "Jana Gana Mana" sung for the first time.
  • 1916 (Lucknow): Ambika Charan Mazumdar (President), reunification of नरम दल & गरम दल, Lucknow Pact (Congress-Muslim League agreement).
  • 1917 (Calcutta): Annie Besant (first female president, from Ireland, journal 'Commonweal').
  • 1920 (Nagpur): C. Vijayaraghavachariar (President), policy for princely states.
  • 1924 (Belgaum, Karnataka): Mahatma Gandhi (only time he presided).
  • 1925 (Kanpur): Sarojini Naidu (first Indian female president, also first female governor of a state).
  • 1929 (Lahore): Jawaharlal Nehru (President), demand for Purna Swaraj (Jan 26, 1930, declared Purna Swaraj Day).
  • 1931 (Karachi): Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel (President), resolution on Fundamental Rights.
  • 1938 (Haripura): Subhas Chandra Bose (President).
  • 1939 (Tripuri): Subhas Chandra Bose (President), later resigned due to differences with Gandhi, Rajendra Prasad took over. Formed Forward Bloc.
  • 1940 (Ramgarh, Jharkhand): Maulana Abul Kalam Azad (youngest INC president).
  • 1946 (Meerut): J.B. Kripalani (President).
  • Post-Independence (Jaipur): Pattabhi Sitaramayya (President).

Indian Constitution - Key Articles, Schedules, Amendments ​

Important Articles ​

  • Article 1: Union and its Territory.
  • Articles 5-11: Citizenship.
  • Article 14: Equality before law (Rule of Law).
  • Article 17: Abolition of Untouchability.
  • Article 18: Abolition of Titles.
  • Article 19(1)(A): Freedom of Speech and Expression.
  • Article 21: Protection of Life and Personal Liberty.
  • Article 21A: Right to Education (86th Amendment, 2002).
  • Article 24: Prohibition of Employment of Children in Factories, etc.
  • Article 25: Freedom of Conscience and Free Profession, Practice and Propagation of Religion.
  • Article 32: Right to Constitutional Remedies (Heart and Soul of Constitution by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar).
  • Article 37: Application of the principles contained in DPSP (non-justiciable).
  • Article 38: State to secure a social order for the promotion of welfare of the people.
  • Article 39A: Equal Justice and Free Legal Aid (42nd Amendment).
  • Article 40: Organization of Village Panchayats.
  • Article 41: Right to Work, to Education and to Public Assistance in certain cases.
  • Article 44: Uniform Civil Code.
  • Article 47: Duty of the State to raise the level of nutrition and the standard of living and to improve public health.
  • Article 50: Separation of Judiciary from Executive.
  • Article 51: Promotion of International Peace and Security.
  • Article 51A: Fundamental Duties (42nd Amendment, 1976, Swaran Singh Committee).
  • Article 52: The President of India.
  • Article 53: Executive Power of the Union.
  • Article 54: Election of President (Electoral College).
  • Article 55: Manner of Election of President (Proportional Representation by means of Single Transferable Vote).
  • Article 56: Term of Office of President (5 years).
  • Article 60: Oath or Affirmation by the President.
  • Article 61: Procedure for Impeachment of the President.
  • Article 63: The Vice-President of India.
  • Article 64: The Vice-President to be ex-officio Chairman of the Council of States (Rajya Sabha).
  • Article 71: Matters relating to or connected with the election of a President or Vice-President (SC decides disputes).
  • Article 72: Power of President to grant pardons.
  • Article 76: Attorney-General for India (Highest Law Officer).
  • Article 108: Joint Sitting of both Houses (three times so far).
  • Article 110: Definition of "Money Bills".
  • Article 111: Presidential assent to Bills.
  • Article 112: Annual Financial Statement (Budget).
  • Article 123: Power of President to promulgate Ordinances.
  • Article 124: Establishment and Constitution of Supreme Court.
  • Article 129: Supreme Court to be a court of record.
  • Article 143: Power of President to consult Supreme Court.
  • Article 148: Comptroller and Auditor-General of India (CAG).
  • Article 153: Governors of States.
  • Article 161: Power of Governor to grant pardons (except death sentence/martial law).
  • Article 165: Advocate-General for the State.
  • Article 200: Governor's assent to Bills.
  • Article 201: Bills reserved for consideration of President.
  • Article 213: Power of Governor to promulgate Ordinances.
  • Article 214: High Courts for States.
  • Article 215: High Courts to be courts of record.
  • Article 226: Power of High Courts to issue certain writs.
  • Articles 243-243O: Panchayats (73rd Amendment).
  • Article 239AA: Special provisions with respect to Delhi (69th Amendment).
  • Article 246A: Special provision with respect to Goods and Services Tax (101st Amendment).
  • Article 263: Provisions with respect to an inter-State Council (headed by PM).
  • Article 266: Consolidated Funds and public accounts of India and of the States.
  • Article 267: Contingency Fund (under President, for natural disasters).
  • Article 280: Finance Commission.
  • Article 300A: Right to Property (made legal right by 44th Amendment).
  • Article 315: Public Service Commissions for the Union and for the States.
  • Article 324: Superintendence, direction and control of elections to be vested in an Election Commission.
  • Article 338: National Commission for Scheduled Castes.
  • Article 338A: National Commission for Scheduled Tribes (89th Amendment).
  • Article 338B: National Commission for Backward Classes (102nd Amendment).
  • Article 343: Official language of the Union.
  • Article 352: Proclamation of Emergency (National Emergency).
  • Article 356: Provisions in case of failure of constitutional machinery in States (President's Rule).
  • Article 360: Provisions as to Financial Emergency.
  • Article 368: Power of Parliament to amend the Constitution and procedure therefor (Part 20, from South Africa).
  • Article 370: Temporary provisions with respect to the State of Jammu and Kashmir (some parts repealed).

Important Schedules ​

  • First Schedule: States and Union Territories (28 States, 8 UTs).
  • Second Schedule: Salaries, allowances, and pensions.
  • Third Schedule: Oaths and affirmations.
  • Fourth Schedule: Allocation of seats in the Rajya Sabha.
  • Fifth Schedule: Administration and control of Scheduled Areas and Scheduled Tribes.
  • Sixth Schedule: Administration of Tribal Areas in Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, Mizoram.
  • Seventh Schedule: Division of powers between Union and States (Union List, State List, Concurrent List).
    • Union List: 100 subjects (originally 97).
    • Concurrent List: 52 subjects (originally 47, 5 added by 42nd Amendment).
    • State List: 61 subjects (originally 66, 5 removed by 42nd Amendment).
  • Eighth Schedule: Official Languages (22 languages, originally 14).
    • 21st Amendment (1967): Sindhi (15th).
    • 71st Amendment (1992): Nepali, Manipuri, Konkani.
    • 92nd Amendment (2003): Bodo, Dogri, Santhali, Maithili.
  • Ninth Schedule: Land reforms (added by 1st Amendment, 1951).
  • Tenth Schedule: Anti-defection law (added by 52nd Amendment, 1985).
  • Eleventh Schedule: Panchayats (added by 73rd Amendment, 1992, 29 subjects).
  • Twelfth Schedule: Municipalities (added by 74th Amendment, 1992, 18 subjects).

Constitutional Amendments ​

  • 1st Amendment (1951): Added 9th Schedule (land reforms).
  • 7th Amendment (1956): State Reorganization Act.
  • 21st Amendment (1967): Sindhi added to 8th Schedule.
  • 26th Amendment (1971): Abolished Privy Purses for erstwhile rulers.
  • 36th Amendment (1975): Sikkim became full-fledged state.
  • 42nd Amendment (1976) (Mini Constitution):
    • Preamble: Added 'Socialist', 'Secular', 'Integrity'.
    • Part IV-A: Added Fundamental Duties (Article 51A, Swaran Singh Committee).
    • DPSP: Added Article 39A (Free Legal Aid), 48A (Environmental Protection).
    • State List to Concurrent List: Transferred 5 subjects (Education, Forests, Protection of Wild Animals & Birds, Weights & Measures, Administration of Justice).
    • Part XIV-A: Added Tribunals (Articles 323A, 323B).
  • 44th Amendment (1978):
    • Right to Property removed from Fundamental Rights (Article 31) and made a legal right (Article 300A).
  • 52nd Amendment (1985): Added 10th Schedule (Anti-defection law).
  • 61st Amendment (1989): Voting age reduced from 21 to 18 years.
  • 69th Amendment (1991): Special status to Delhi (National Capital Territory), Article 239AA.
  • 70th Amendment (1992): Delhi and Puducherry MLAs included in Presidential election.
  • 71st Amendment (1992): Konkani, Manipuri, Nepali added to 8th Schedule.
  • 73rd Amendment (1992): Panchayati Raj (Part IX, 11th Schedule, 29 subjects). Implemented April 24, 1993.
  • 74th Amendment (1992): Urban Local Bodies (Part IX-A, 12th Schedule, 18 subjects).
  • 86th Amendment (2002): Right to Education (Article 21A), 11th Fundamental Duty added.
  • 89th Amendment (2003): National Commission for Scheduled Tribes (NCST) established (Article 338A).
  • 91st Amendment (2003): Size of Council of Ministers limited to 15% of Lok Sabha (Centre) and State Legislative Assembly (State).
  • 92nd Amendment (2003): Bodo, Dogri, Maithili, Santhali added to 8th Schedule.
  • 97th Amendment (2011): Cooperative Societies (Part IX-B, Article 43B).
  • 99th Amendment (2014): National Judicial Appointments Commission (NJAC) - struck down by SC.
  • 100th Amendment (2015): Land Boundary Agreement with Bangladesh (Tin Bigha Corridor).
  • 101st Amendment (2016): Goods and Services Tax (GST).
  • 102nd Amendment (2018): Constitutional status to National Commission for Backward Classes (NCBC) (Article 338B).
  • 103rd Amendment (2019): 10% EWS reservation (Articles 15(6), 16(6)).
  • 104th Amendment (2020): Extended SC/ST reservation in Lok Sabha and State Assemblies for 10 years, removed reservation for Anglo-Indians.
  • 105th Amendment (2021): Restored power of states to identify OBCs.
  • 106th Amendment (2023): Nari Shakti Vandan Adhiniyam (Women's Reservation Bill).
  • 129th Constitutional Amendment Bill (Proposed): One Nation One Election (Ram Nath Kovind Committee).

Indian Governors and Viceroys ​

  • First Governor of Bengal: Robert Clive.
  • First Governor-General of Bengal: Warren Hastings.
  • First Governor-General of India: William Bentinck.
  • First Viceroy of India: Lord Canning.
  • First Indian Governor-General: C. Rajagopalachari.
  • Governor-General at Independence: Lord Mountbatten.
  • Lord Wellesley (1798): Introduced Subsidiary Alliance (first with Hyderabad).
  • Charles Metcalfe: Liberator of Indian Press.
  • Lord Curzon (1905): Responsible for Bengal Partition.
  • Lord Hardinge II (1911): Viceroy during Delhi Durbar when capital shifted from Kolkata to Delhi (1912).

Government Schemes and Initiatives ​

  • Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana (Aug 28, 2014): Zero balance accounts, Tagline: "Mera Khata Bhagya Vidhata".
  • Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA): Act 2005, implemented Feb 2, 2006. Renamed to MGNREGA Oct 2, 2009.
  • Beti Bachao Beti Padhao (Jan 22, 2015): Launched from Panipat, Haryana.
  • Pradhan Mantri Mudra Yojana (April 8, 2015): Loans up to ₹10 lakh for non-corporate, non-farm small/micro enterprises.
  • Mission Indradhanush (Dec 25, 2014): Vaccination program.
  • Make in India (Sep 25, 2014):
  • Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (Dec 25, 2000): Started by Atal Bihari Vajpayee.
  • Soil Health Card (Feb 19, 2015): Started from Sri Ganganagar.
  • Ujjwala Yojana (May 1, 2016): LPG connections, launched from Ballia, Uttar Pradesh.
  • Ayushman Bharat Yojana (Sep 23, 2018): Launched from Ranchi, Jharkhand.

Environment and Ecology ​

  • Food Chain: Producer (plants, photosynthesis, chlorophyll with Magnesium), Primary Consumer (herbivores, e.g., rabbit), Secondary Consumer (carnivores), Decomposers (bacteria, fungi).
  • 10% Law: Lindeman's 10% energy transfer rule.
  • Ecosystem Term: Tansley.
  • Ecology Term: Ernst Haeckel.
  • Nature's Scavengers: Vultures.

Census 2011 (India) ​

  • First Census: 1872 (under Lord Mayo).
  • First Decadal Census: 1881 (under Lord Ripon).
  • Census 2011: 15th overall, 7th since independence, 14th decadal.
    • Census Commissioner: C. Chandramouli.
    • Motto: "Our Census, Our Future".
    • Population: 121.09 crores (2nd globally, now 1st).
    • Decadal Growth (2001-2011): 17.7%.
    • Gender Split: Males 51.47%, Females 48.53%.
    • Mahavibhajak Decade (Great Divide): 1911-1921 (population decrease).
    • Largest State (Area): Rajasthan.
    • Smallest State (Area): Goa.
    • Largest UT (Area): Ladakh.
    • Smallest UT (Area): Lakshadweep.
    • Highest Population (State): Uttar Pradesh (16.51% of India's population).
    • Lowest Population (State): Sikkim.
    • Highest Decadal Growth (State): Meghalaya (27.9%).
    • Lowest Decadal Growth (State): Nagaland (-0.6%, only state with negative growth).
    • Population Density (India): 382 persons/sq km.
    • Highest Population Density (State): Bihar (1106 persons/sq km).
    • Lowest Population Density (State): Arunachal Pradesh (17 persons/sq km).
    • Highest Population Density (UT/Overall): Delhi.
    • Sex Ratio (India): 943 females/1000 males.
    • Highest Sex Ratio (State): Kerala (1084 females/1000 males - only state >1000).
    • Lowest Sex Ratio (State): Haryana (879 females/1000 males).
    • Child Sex Ratio (0-6 years) Highest: Arunachal Pradesh (972).
    • Child Sex Ratio (0-6 years) Lowest: Haryana (834).
    • Literacy Rate (India): 73% (Males 80.09%, Females 64.60%).
    • Highest Literacy (State): Kerala (94%).
    • Lowest Literacy (State): Bihar (61.80%).
    • Highest Rural Population (%): Himachal Pradesh (90%).
    • Highest Urban Population (%): Goa (62.2%).
    • Highest Urban Population (Numbers): Maharashtra (5.08 crore).
    • Highest SC Population (Numbers): Uttar Pradesh.
    • Highest SC Population (%): Punjab (31.9%).
    • Highest ST Population (Numbers): Madhya Pradesh (1.5 crore).
    • Highest ST Population (%): Mizoram (94%).

Geography - World and India ​

Volcanoes ​

  • Ojos del Salado: Chile-Argentina border (world's highest active volcano).
  • Vesuvius, Etna, Stromboli: Italy (Stromboli is called "Lighthouse of the Mediterranean").
  • Fujiyama: Japan.
  • Cotopaxi, Chimborazo: Ecuador.
  • Barren Island: Andaman & Nicobar (India's only active volcano).
  • Krakatau: Indonesia.

Grasslands ​

  • Pampas: Argentina.
  • Velds: South Africa.
  • Prairies: North America.
  • Downs: Australia.
  • Steppes: Ukraine.
  • Llanos: Venezuela.
  • Puszta: Hungary.

Deserts ​

  • Sonoran Desert, Mojave Desert: USA.
  • Taklamakan Desert: China.
  • Karakum Desert: Turkmenistan.
  • Gobi Desert: China & Mongolia (cold desert).
  • Gibson, Simpson, Great Victorian Deserts: Australia (Australia is "land of thirsty").
  • Sahara Desert: Africa (world's largest).
  • Patagonia Desert: Argentina.
  • Kalahari Desert: Botswana (Bushmen tribe).
  • Europe: No deserts.

Rivers and Tributaries (India) ​

  • West-flowing Rivers (Samanata): Sabarmati, Mahi, Narmada, Tapi.
    • Sabarmati: Ahmedabad city.
    • Narmada: Originates from Amarkantak Hills (also Son river). Dhuandhar Waterfall (Madhya Pradesh), Sardar Sarovar Dam (Gujarat).
    • Mahi: Hirakud Dam (in Salpur, Odisha - Note: Hirakud dam is on Mahanadi).
  • Son River: Tributary of Ganga. Rihand River (tributary of Son), Rihand Dam.
  • Yamuna Tributaries: Chambal, Sindh, Betwa, Ken (Matatila Project on Betwa).
  • Ganga Tributaries: Ramganga, Gomti, Ghaghra, Gandak, Kosi, Mahananda, Son.
  • Godavari Tributaries: Indravati, Pravara.
    • Projects: Pochampad, Jaikwadi.
    • Origin: Trimbakeshwar Hills, Nashik, Maharashtra.
  • Krishna Tributaries: Tungabhadra, Musi (Hyderabad city on Musi).
    • Projects: Almatti Dam, Nagarjuna Sagar, Srisailam.
    • Origin: Mahabaleshwar Hills, Maharashtra.
  • Kaveri Tributaries: Hemavati.
    • Projects: Shivanasamudra Project, Mettur Dam, Krishnaraja Sagara Dam.
    • Origin: Brahmagiri Hills, Kodagu district, Karnataka.
  • Brahmaputra (Sangpo in Tibet) Tributaries: Lohit, Kameng, Dhansiri, Subansiri, Teesta.
    • Project: Zangmu Project (China).
  • Indus Tributaries: Shyok, Gilgit, Kabul, Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, Sutlej.

Agriculture ​

  • Rabi Crops (winter crops): Naai (चना - Chickpea, राई - Mustard), Hooter (गेहूं - Wheat, मटर - Pea), Josh (जौ - Barley, सरसों - Mustard), Aloo (Potato).
  • Kharif Crops (monsoon crops): Cotton, Rice, Bajra.
  • Agricultural Revolutions:
    • Pink Revolution: Prawns.
    • Yellow Revolution: Oilseeds.
    • Black Revolution: Bio-diesel.
    • Golden Revolution (Sunheri Kranti): Horticulture.
    • Silver Revolution: Egg.
    • Blue Revolution: Fish.
    • Red Revolution: Tomato.
    • Amrit Kranti: River interlinking project.
    • Green Revolution: Term coined by William Gaud. Started by Norman Borlaug (world), M.S. Swaminathan (India). Focused on HYV seeds and irrigation.
  • Agricultural Practices:
    • Pisciculture: Fish farming.
    • Sericulture: Silk worm rearing.
    • Viticulture: Grape cultivation.
    • Vermiculture: Earthworm rearing.
    • Horticulture: Gardening.
    • Olericulture: Vegetable cultivation.
    • Floriculture: Flower cultivation.
    • Apiculture: Beekeeping.

Chemistry and Physics ​

  • Noble Gases (Group 18): Helium, Neon, Argon, Krypton, Xenon, Radon. Monatomic, inert.
    • Xenon: Called 'Stranger Gas'.
    • Radon: Released during earthquakes.
  • Halogens (Group 17): Fluorine, Chlorine family.
  • Chalcogens (Group 16): Oxygen family.
  • Ozone Gas (O3): Concentration measured in Dobson units.
  • Lightest Metal: Lithium.
  • Heaviest Metal: Osmium.
  • Lightest Element: Hydrogen (isotopes: Protium 1H1, Deuterium 1H2, Tritium 1H3; D2O Heavy Water used as moderator in nuclear reactors).
  • Liquid Metal at Room Temp: Mercury (Hg).
  • Liquid Non-metal at Room Temp: Bromine.
  • Quick Silver: Mercury.
  • Starch/Malt Test: Iodine.
  • Vulcanization of Rubber: Sulfur.
  • Units:
    • Pressure: Pascal (Force/Area). Measured by Barometer.
    • Distance: Parsec (largest), Light-year.
    • Work/Energy: Joule, Erg (1 Joule = 10^7 Erg).
    • Force: Newton, Dyne (1 Newton = 10^5 Dyne).
    • Power: Watt (Work/Time).
  • Newton's Laws of Motion:
    • 1st Law: Law of Inertia (object at rest stays at rest, object in motion stays in motion).
    • 2nd Law: F = ma (Force = mass x acceleration).
    • 3rd Law: Action-Reaction (e.g., rocket propulsion, recoil of gun).
  • Momentum (p): Mass x Velocity (m x v). Unit: kg m/s.
  • Energy Formulas:
    • Kinetic Energy (KE): 1/2 mv^2.
    • Potential Energy (PE): mgh.
  • Chemical Formulas:
    • Gypsum: CaSO4.2H2O (Calcium Sulfate Dihydrate).
    • Plaster of Paris (POP): CaSO4.1/2H2O (Calcium Sulfate Hemihydrate) - formed by heating gypsum.
    • Horn Silver: AgCl (Silver Chloride).
    • Photography: AgBr (Silver Bromide).
    • Election Ink (Lunar Caustic): AgNO3 (Silver Nitrate).
    • Artificial Rain: AgI (Silver Iodide).
    • Vermillion (Sindoor): HgS (Mercuric Sulfide).
    • Baking Soda: NaHCO3 (Sodium Bicarbonate).
    • Washing Soda: Na2CO3.10H2O (Sodium Carbonate Decahydrate).
    • Stomach Acid: HCl (Hydrochloric Acid).
    • Oil of Vitriol (King of Chemicals): H2SO4 (Sulfuric Acid).
    • Aqua Regia: 3 parts HCl, 1 part HNO3 (dissolves gold/platinum).
    • Acid Rain: H2SO4 + HNO3 (pH < 5.5).
    • Milk of Magnesia: Mg(OH)2 (Magnesium Hydroxide).
    • Limewater: Ca(OH)2 (Calcium Hydroxide).
    • Bleaching Powder (Calcium Hypochlorite): CaOCl2.

Biology - Human Body and Diseases ​

  • Diseases from Cadmium excess: Itai-Itai disease.
  • Diseases from Mercury excess: Minamata disease.
  • Anemia: Low hemoglobin.
  • Hormone-like Vitamin: Vitamin D.
  • Vitamins:
    • Fat-soluble: A, D, E, K.
    • Water-soluble: B, C.
    • Vitamin A (Retinol): Anti-infection, synthesized in liver. Deficiency causes Xerophthalmia (dry eyes) and Night Blindness. Found in carrots, golden rice.
    • Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid): Antioxidant, daily use. Found in citrus fruits, amla, chili. Deficiency causes Scurvy (bleeding gums). Not found in milk.
    • Vitamin D (Calciferol): Hormone-like, sunshine vitamin. Deficiency causes Rickets (children), Osteomalacia (adults).
    • Vitamin E (Tocopherol): Deficiency causes Infertility.
    • Vitamin K (Phylloquinone): Deficiency causes blood clotting issues.
    • Vitamin B1 (Thiamine): Deficiency causes Beriberi. Lacks in polished rice.
    • Vitamin B9 (Folic Acid): Deficiency causes Anemia.
    • Vitamin B12 (Cyanocobalamin): Contains Cobalt metal.
  • Diseases (Bacterial):
    • Pneumonia: Diplococcus pneumoniae.
    • Plague: Pasteurella pestis (vector: rat), Black Death.
    • Diphtheria: Affects respiratory system.
    • Tuberculosis (TB): Mycobacterium tuberculosis (discovered by Robert Koch). Affects lungs. BCG vaccine. Target to eliminate TB by 2025.
    • Tetanus: Clostridium tetani. Lockjaw, Opisthotonos (body arch). DP T vaccine.
    • Typhoid: Salmonella typhi (enteric fever). Widal test. Affects intestines.
    • Leprosy (Hansen's Disease): Mycobacterium leprae. Affects skin and nervous system.
    • Cholera (Haemolytic Uremic Syndrome - HUS): Vibrio cholerae. Affects intestines. ORS for treatment.
    • Syphilis, Gonorrhea: Sexually transmitted, affect reproductive organs.
  • Diseases (Viral):
    • Rabies: Rhabdovirus. Vector: dog/cat. Hydrophobia. Louis Pasteur discovered vaccine. 100% fatal.
    • Chickenpox (Varicella): Varicella virus.
    • Smallpox (Chechak): Variola virus. Vaccine by Edward Jenner (world's first). India is smallpox-free.
    • Dengue: Arbovirus. Vector: Aedes aegypti mosquito. Decreased platelets. Prevented by kerosene, Gambusia fish.
    • Polio: Poliovirus. Causes disability. Pulse Polio campaign (March 16, 1995, National Vaccination Day). Oral Polio Vaccine (Salk vaccine). India declared polio-free in 2014.
    • AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome): HIV (retrovirus). ELISA test, Western blot for confirmation. First case in US, then Chennai. Dec 1 is World AIDS Day.
    • COVID-19: SARS-CoV-2 (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome). Started in Wuhan. Affects respiratory system. Covaxin (Bharat Biotech), Covishield (Serum Institute).
    • Ebola: Named after Ebola River in Congo. Causes internal bleeding.
    • Nipah Virus: Zoonotic disease. Spreads from fruit bats (flying fox). Started in Nipah, Malaysia.
    • Hepatitis: Liver inflammation. Types A, B, C, D, E. July 28 is Hepatitis Day.
    • Measles: Morbillivirus.
    • Rubella (German Measles): Rubella virus.
    • Swine Flu: H1N1 virus.
    • Bird Flu: H5N1 virus.
    • Common Cold: Rhinovirus.
    • Eye Flu (Conjunctivitis/Pink Eye): Adenovirus.
  • Diseases (Protozoal):
    • Malaria: Plasmodium protozoa (P. falciparum most dangerous). Vector: female Anopheles mosquito. Discovered by Ronald Ross. Quinine drug (from Cinchona tree). First vaccine Mosquirix. Affects RBCs. India's target 2030 for elimination. April 25 is World Malaria Day.
    • Kala-azar (Leishmaniasis): Vector: Sandfly.
    • Sleeping Sickness (African Trypanosomiasis): Vector: Tsetse fly.
    • Pyorrhea: Gum infection.
    • Dysentery (Bloody Diarrhea): Entamoeba histolytica.
  • Diseases (Fungal): Black fungus (Mucormycosis), Ringworm, Itching, Athlete's Foot, Baldness.
  • Diseases (Genetic/Chromosomal):
    • Down Syndrome: Trisomy of 21st chromosome.
    • Patau Syndrome: Trisomy of 13th chromosome.
    • Edwards Syndrome: Trisomy of 18th chromosome.
    • Klinefelter Syndrome: XXY (47 chromosomes in males, female characteristics).
    • Turner Syndrome: XO (45 chromosomes in females, underdeveloped female characteristics).
    • Hemophilia: Royal disease, no blood clotting.
    • Color Blindness: Difficulty distinguishing colors.
    • Thalassemia: Impaired RBC formation.
    • Sickle Cell Anemia: Sickle-shaped RBCs. Target for elimination by 2047.
  • Other Diseases:
    • Elephantiasis (Filariasis): Caused by Wuchereria bancrofti (nematode worm).
    • Blue Baby Syndrome: Excess Nitrate.
    • Silicosis: Lung disease from silica dust in mines.
  • Brain Disorders:
    • Dementia: Memory loss.
    • Alzheimer's: Progressive memory loss in old age.
    • Meningitis: Inflammation of brain meninges.
    • Parkinson's: Shaking, tremors.
    • Brain Hemorrhage: Bleeding in brain.
    • Epilepsy: Seizures.
  • Cancer: Uncontrolled cell growth. Oncology is its study.
    • Leukemia: Increased WBC count (blood cancer).
    • Carcinogens: Cancer-causing agents (tobacco).
    • Treatment: Chemotherapy, radiation.
    • Cobalt-60: Used in cancer treatment.
    • Iodine-131: Used for thyroid cancer.
    • Feb 4: World Cancer Day.
  • Glands:
    • Thomas Edison: Coined 'gland'.
    • Endocrine Glands: Produce hormones (e.g., Pituitary, Thyroid).
    • Exocrine Glands: Produce enzymes (e.g., Liver, Salivary).
    • Mixed Glands: Produce both (e.g., Pancreas).
    • Pituitary Gland (Master Gland): Produces growth hormone, oxytocin, vasopressin (ADH), prolactin. Located in brain.
    • Thyroid Gland (Largest Endocrine Gland): H-shaped, in throat. Produces thyroxine (needs iodine). Deficiency causes Goiter (Galgand). Calcitonin hormone. Hashimotos disease (thyroid destruction).
    • Hypothalamus (Master of Master Gland): Regulates body temperature.
    • Pineal Gland (Biological Clock): Regulates sleep-wake cycle.
    • Thymus Gland: In front of heart. Develops T-lymphocytes (WBCs). Degenerates in old age.
    • Adrenal Gland (Emergency Gland): Above kidneys. Produces adrenaline (fight-or-flight hormone).
    • Gonads: Testes (males, testosterone/androgen hormone), Ovaries (females, estrogen, progesterone - pregnancy hormone).
    • Placenta: Produces hCG hormone (pregnancy hormone).
    • Liver (Largest Gland in body, largest internal organ, chemical laboratory): Produces bile (for fat emulsification). Synthesizes Vitamin A. Blood formation in fetus. Detoxification. High regeneration power. Dysfunction causes Hepatitis, Jaundice.
    • Salivary Gland (3 pairs/6 total): Produces lysozyme (antibacterial enzyme). Parotid gland (below ear).
    • Pancreas (Largest Mixed Gland): Contains Islets of Langerhans (alpha and beta cells). Alpha cells produce glucagon (increases blood sugar). Beta cells produce insulin (controls blood sugar). Insulin deficiency causes Diabetes. Insulin discovered by Best and Banting. Insulin contains Zinc.
    • Spleen (Pliha): RBC graveyard, stores RBCs after death.

Economics - Five-Year Plans ​

  • First Five-Year Plan (1951-1956):
    • Model: Harrod-Domar Model.
    • Draft: K.N. Raj.
    • Focus: Agriculture.
    • Target Growth: 2.1%. Achieved: 3.6%.
  • Second Five-Year Plan (1956-1961):
    • Model: P.C. Mahalanobis Model.
    • Focus: Heavy Industries.
    • Establishments: Bhilai (Chhattisgarh), Rourkela (Odisha), Durgapur (West Bengal) Iron and Steel Plants.
    • Target Growth: 4.5%. Achieved: 4.27%.
  • Third Five-Year Plan (1961-1966):
    • Model: Sukhamoy Chakravarty Model.
    • Focus: Agriculture and Industry (both).
    • Challenges: India-China War (1962), India-Pakistan War (1965), Famine. Failed to achieve targets.
    • Slogan: Jai Jawan Jai Kisan (Lal Bahadur Shastri).
    • Establishments: Food Corporation of India (1965).
  • Plan Holiday (1966-1969): Three annual plans.
    • Reason: Poor economic condition after wars and famine.
    • Initiatives: Green Revolution (for food self-sufficiency).
  • Fourth Five-Year Plan (1969-1974):
    • Model: Ashok Rudra / D.R. Gadgil.
    • Focus: Growth with Stability and Self-Reliance.
    • Events: India-Pakistan War (1971), Pokhran-I (Operation Smiling Buddha, 1974), Nationalization of 14 banks (1969).
    • Target Growth: 5.5-5.7%. Achieved: 3.3%.
  • Fifth Five-Year Plan (1974-1979):
    • Model: D.P. Dhar.
    • Focus: Poverty Eradication (Garibi Hatao).
    • Duration: Terminated one year early (1974-1978) due to change in government.
    • Target Growth: 4.4%. Achieved: 4.8%.
  • Rolling Plan (1978-1980):
    • Concept: Gunnar Myrdal (book: Asian Drama).
    • Implemented in India: Lakdawala.
  • Sixth Five-Year Plan (1980-1985):
    • Model: Input-Output Model.
    • Focus: Employment Generation and Poverty Alleviation.
    • Establishments: NABARD (1982), Nationalization of 6 more banks (1980).
    • Events: Indira Gandhi's assassination (1984), Operation Blue Star, Operation Meghdoot (Siachen Glacier capture).
  • Seventh Five-Year Plan (1985-1990):
    • Focus: Modernization, Social Justice.
    • Slogan: Roti, Rozgar, Utpadakta (Food, Work, Productivity).
    • Establishments: SEBI (1988).
  • Annual Plans (1990-1992): Plan Holiday due to economic crisis.
    • Initiatives: New Economic Policy (LPG - Liberalization, Privatization, Globalization) in 1991, under PM P.V. Narasimha Rao and FM Dr. Manmohan Singh.
  • Eighth Five-Year Plan (1992-1997):
    • Model: John W. Miller Model.
    • Focus: Human Resource Development.
    • Events: 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendments (Panchayati Raj, Urban Local Bodies), WTO establishment (Jan 1, 1995).
  • Ninth Five-Year Plan (1997-2002):
    • Focus: Growth with Social Justice and Equality.
    • Events: Kargil War (1999), Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (2000).
  • Tenth Five-Year Plan (2002-2007):
    • Model: Input-Output Model.
    • Focus: Social Justice and Equality.
    • Growth: Achieved 7.6% (highest till then).
    • Events: NREGA Act (2005), implemented Feb 2, 2006.
  • Eleventh Five-Year Plan (2007-2012):
    • Focus: Rapid and Inclusive Growth.
    • Growth: Achieved 8% (highest ever).
    • Events: Right to Education Act (2009), implemented April 1, 2010.
  • Twelfth Five-Year Plan (2012-2017):
    • Focus: Rapid, Sustainable, and Inclusive Growth.
    • Last Plan.
    • Target: Agricultural growth 4%, Total Fertility Rate 2.1% (replacement rate).

Committees and Commissions ​

  • Rangarajan Committee / Suresh Tendulkar Committee / Lakdawala Committee: Poverty.
  • Bhagwati Committee: Unemployment.
  • Karve Committee (1955): Village and Small Industries.
  • Narasimhan Committee: Banking Reforms.
  • Shivraman Committee: NABARD (1982).
  • Santhanan Committee: Central Vigilance Commission (CVC).
  • Sarkaria Commission / Rajamannar Commission / Punchhi Commission: Centre-State Relations.
  • Kaka Kalelkar Commission / Mandal Commission: Reservations.
  • Young Hilton Commission: RBI.
  • Lee Commission: UPSC.
  • Malhotra Committee: Insurance Reforms.
  • Vijay Kelkar Committee: GST.
  • Chelliah Committee: Tax Reforms.
  • Kasturirangan Committee: National Education Policy.
  • Hunter Commission: Primary Education.
  • Thomas Raleigh Commission: Universities.
  • Acworth Committee: Separation of Railway Budget from General Budget.
  • Vivek Debroy Committee: Merger of Railway Budget with General Budget.
  • Urjit Patel Committee: Monetary Policy Committee, Inflation Targeting (4% +/- 2%).

Currencies and Capitals ​

  • India: New Delhi, Rupee.
  • Bangladesh: Dhaka, Taka.
  • Myanmar: Naypyidaw, Kyat.
  • Nepal: Kathmandu, Rupee.
  • China: Beijing, Yuan/Renminbi.
  • Bhutan: Thimphu, Ngultrum.
  • Sri Lanka: Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte, Rupee.
  • Mongolia: Ulaanbaatar, Tögrög.
  • Pakistan: Islamabad, Rupee.
  • Uzbekistan: Tashkent, Som.
  • Turkmenistan: Ashgabat, Manat.
  • Kazakhstan: Astana (formerly Nur-Sultan), Tenge.
  • Kyrgyzstan: Bishkek, Som.
  • Tajikistan: Dushanbe, Somoni.
  • Iran: Tehran, Rial.
  • Iraq: Baghdad, Dinar.
  • Bahrain: Manama, Dinar.
  • Lebanon: Beirut, Pound.
  • UAE: Abu Dhabi, Dirham.
  • Turkey (Türkiye): Ankara, Lira.
  • Israel: Jerusalem, New Shekel.
  • Jordan: Amman, Dinar.
  • Saudi Arabia: Riyadh, Riyal.
  • Yemen: Sana'a, Rial.
  • Syria: Damascus, Pound.
  • Oman: Muscat, Rial.
  • Indonesia: Jakarta, Rupiah.
  • Malaysia: Kuala Lumpur, Ringgit.
  • Cambodia: Phnom Penh, Riel.
  • Philippines: Manila, Peso.
  • Thailand: Bangkok, Baht.
  • Vietnam: Hanoi, Dong.
  • North Korea: Pyongyang, Won.
  • South Korea: Seoul, Won.
  • Brunei: Bandar Seri Begawan, Dollar.
  • Hong Kong: Victoria, Dollar.
  • Japan: Tokyo, Yen.
  • Afghanistan: Kabul, Afghani.
  • Qatar: Doha, Riyal.
  • Azerbaijan: Baku, Manat.
  • Georgia: Tbilisi, Lari.
  • Albania: Tirana, Lek.
  • Iceland: Reykjavik, Króna.
  • Austria: Vienna, Euro.
  • Italy: Rome, Euro.
  • Estonia: Tallinn, Euro.
  • Greece: Athens, Euro.
  • Czech Republic: Prague, Koruna.
  • Germany: Berlin, Euro.
  • Denmark: Copenhagen, Krone.
  • Norway: Oslo, Norwegian Krone.
  • Netherlands: Amsterdam, Euro.
  • Portugal: Lisbon, Euro.
  • Poland: Warsaw, Złoty.
  • Finland: Helsinki, Euro.
  • France: Paris, Euro.
  • Bulgaria: Sofia, Euro.
  • Belgium: Brussels, Euro.
  • Belarus: Minsk, Ruble.
  • Ukraine: Kyiv, Hryvnia.
  • United Kingdom: London, Pound Sterling.
  • Romania: Bucharest, Leu.
  • Latvia: Riga, Euro.
  • Lithuania: Vilnius, Euro.
  • Spain: Madrid, Euro.
  • Switzerland: Bern, Swiss Franc.
  • Sweden: Stockholm, Swedish Krona.
  • Serbia: Belgrade, Dinar.
  • Hungary: Budapest, Forint.
  • Ireland: Dublin, Euro.
  • Russia: Moscow, Ruble.
  • Egypt: Cairo/Cairow, Pound.
  • Libya: Tripoli, Dinar.
  • Morocco: Rabat, Dirham.
  • Nigeria: Abuja, Naira.
  • Namibia: Windhoek, Dollar.
  • Sudan: Khartoum, Pound. (South Sudan: Juba)
  • Republic of the Congo: Kinshasa (formerly Zaire).
  • Congo (Brazzaville): Brazzaville.
  • Somalia: Mogadishu, Shilling.
  • Seychelles: Victoria, Rupee.
  • Ethiopia: Addis Ababa, Birr.
  • Uganda: Kampala.
  • Kenya: Nairobi (UNEP HQ).
  • Mauritius: Port Louis, Mauritian Rupee.
  • Tanzania: Dodoma, Shilling.
  • Rwanda: Kigali, Franc.
  • Zimbabwe: Harare, Dollar.
  • Ghana: Accra, Cedi.
  • South Africa: Pretoria (Admin), Cape Town (Legis), Bloemfontein (Judicial). Rand.
  • USA: Washington D.C., Dollar.
  • Canada: Ottawa, Dollar.
  • Mexico: Mexico City, Peso.
  • Cuba: Havana, Peso.
  • Jamaica: Kingston, Jamaican Dollar.
  • Greenland: Nuuk, Danish Krone.
  • Argentina: Buenos Aires, Peso.
  • Bolivia: La Paz (admin), Sucre (constitutional). Boliviano.
  • Brazil: Brasília, Real.
  • Chile: Santiago, Peso.
  • Colombia: Bogota, Peso.
  • Ecuador: Quito, US Dollar.
  • Peru: Lima, Sol.
  • Uruguay: Montevideo, Peso.
  • Venezuela: Caracas, Bolívar.
  • Australia: Canberra, Dollar.
  • New Zealand: Wellington, Dollar.
  • Fiji: Suva, Fijian Dollar.
  • Papua New Guinea: Port Moresby, Kina.
  • Palau: Ngerulmud. Dollar.

Nobel Prizes ​

  • Origin: Alfred Nobel (inventor of dynamite), will in 1895, first awarded in 1901.
  • Categories: Physics, Chemistry, Medicine, Literature, Peace (all Stockholm, Sweden, except Peace in Oslo, Norway), Economics (added in 1968, first awarded 1969 by Sweden's Sveriges Riksbank).
  • Award Date: December 10 (Nobel's death anniversary).

Nobel Laureates 2025 (as presented in lecture - Note: This likely refers to a hypothetical year or the current year presented in a future context, actual 2023/2024 laureates are different) ​

  • Physiology/Medicine: Mary Brun Kob, France Remus Dell, Simon Sakaguchi (for work on immune system tolerance).
  • Physics: Michel S. Devarot, John Clark, John Martis (for quantum mechanical tunneling in electric circuits).
  • Chemistry: Richard Ropson, Omar Yagi, Susumu Kitagawa (for Metal-Organic Frameworks, MOFs).
  • Literature: Laszlo Krasznahorkai (Hungary) (for his "hypnotic and visionary works").
  • Peace: Maria Corina Machado (Venezuelan opposition leader).
  • Economics: Joel Mokyr, Philip Aghion, Peter Howitt (for identifying conditions for sustainable development through technological advancement and creative destruction).

Indian Nobel Laureates ​

  • Rabindranath Tagore (Literature, 1913): For "Gitanjali". First Indian and first Asian in Literature.
  • C.V. Raman (Physics, 1930): For "Raman Effect" (scattering of light).
  • Har Gobind Khorana (Medicine, 1968): For artificial synthesis of gene and its role in protein synthesis.
  • Mother Teresa (Peace, 1979): First Indian woman and first Indian for Peace.
  • Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar (Physics, 1983): For theoretical studies of physical processes important to the structure and evolution of stars (Chandrasekhar Limit).
  • Amartya Sen (Economics, 1998): For work on public welfare economics. First Indian in Economics.
  • V.S. Naipaul (Literature, 2001): For "In a Free State".
  • Venkatraman Ramakrishnan (Chemistry, 2009): For work on the structure of ribosome.
  • Kailash Satyarthi (Peace, 2014): Shared with Malala Yousafzai (youngest Nobel laureate). Founder of "Bachpan Bachao Andolan".
  • Abhijit Banerjee (Economics, 2019): For experimental approach to alleviating global poverty.

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